Chapter 6: In boiling Water

Archaebacteria do thrive in boiling water. Why? How do they do that? How large are they? Or rather: how small are they? Are these one-celled organisms primitive? What is the hottest temperature, at which a one-celled organisms is still able to live, to multiply? How long is their DNA-chain? How much information does it contain? Are the heat loving archae the oldest one-celled organisms on earth? Are they really at the root of the 16S-rRNA tree of life? What have scientists found out about this now?

Christian Baumann, Martin Judex, Harald Huber, and Reinhard Wirth at the University of Regensburg, Germany, report in Extremophiles (1998) 2:101-108 under the heading, "Estimation of genome sizes of hyperthermophiles":

"Genomes of various hyperthermophilic and extremely thermophilic prokaryotes were analyzed with respect to size, physical organization, and 16S rRNA copy number. Our results show that all the genomes are circular, and they are in the size range of 1.6-1.8 Mb for Pyrodictium abyssi, Methanococcus igneus, Pyrobaculum aerophilum, Archaeoglobus fulgidus, Archaeoglobus lithotrophicus, and Archaeoglobus profundus (the two bacteria Fervidobacterium islandicum and Thermosipho africanus possess genomes of 1.5-Mb size). A systematic study of all validly described species of the order Sulfolobales revealed the existence of two classes of genome size for these archaea, correlating with phylogenetic analyses. The Metallosphaera-Acidianus group, plus Sulfolobus metallicus, have genomes of ca. 1.9 Mb; the other members of the order Sulfolobales group possess genomes >2.7 Mb."

"Archaea possess cell walls of very rigid structure, which in many cases cannot be lysed by conventional techniques. Archaea contain proteins with much stronger DNA-binding capacity than do bacteria. In the case of Pyrococcus furiosus, such proteins protect genomic DNA 20-fold better against thermal damage compared with E. coli (Peak et al. 1995). ... Such DNA-binding proteins are major components of archaeal cells: for example, in the case of M. jannaschii, not only one but five genes for histones have been identified. Three are encoded on the116-kb genome, Bult et al. (1996).

"For Pyrobaculum aerophilum we determined a genome size of ca. 1700 kb, while the value obtained by sequencing will be ca. 1800 kb. For S. solfataricus genome sequencing will give a value of ca. 3000 kb, compared to our 2800 kb. The first genome sequence of an archaeum, namely that of M. jannaschii, revealed a genome size of 1665 kb (Bult et al. 1996). Our estimate for its close relative, M. igneus, is 1658 kb, very close to that value. We also want to emphasize that the size estimates given here are minimal values. ... Archaeoglobus fulgidus is a special case. Here, our size estimate of 1784 kb is clearly lower than the value obtained by genome sequencing (2.18 Mb: H.-P.-Klenk." (1998:104, 105).

"The genome sizes of (hyper)thermophiles are in the range of ca. 1.5-2 MB; on the other hand, the genomes of (parasitic bacteria) Mycoplasma genitalium and Mycoplasma pneumoniae are around 0.6 and 0.8 Mb, respectively (Fraser et al. 1995; Himmelreich et al. 1996). Since these two species are the free-living microorganisms with the smallest genome known today, one has to assume that genomes of hyperthermphiles are at least twice the size of a minimal functional genome; (Mushegian and Koonin, 1996), and therefore have undergone extensive evolution.", (Baumann, C. et al. 1998:106, 107).

Comment: One cannot compare the genome length of a parasitic bacterium with a hyperthermophile living in boiling water on inorganic food. This hyperthermophile needs much for genetic information, than the parasite. Thus, it must have a much longer DNA-genome.

Genome size for hyperthermophiles in this study.

Baumann, C. et al. (1998:104), Table 2. (Thousand base pairs)

The hyperthermophiles have a genome length of 1.5-2,0 million base pairs, in the form of a circle. The average of 1.75 million base pairs has an information content of at least 10^{1 053 605} bit. So much information was needed, just to put their nucleotide pairs into the right order. Information always comes from a spiritual, non-material source, from the Creator.

What have other workers found out about this? Has the first cell on Earth been adapted to boiling water? Has it really been an hyperthermophile?

Methanothermus fervidus

It was found in Grandalur close to Hveragerthi, on Iceland, at a depth of 30 cm within an acidic solfatara field. In contrast to the acidity of the surface water, the pH at depth was 6.0 and the temperature 100°C. Thus, Methanothermus seems to be present in the depth of solfatara fields, which can be acidic on the surface (pH 1-3). The reduced environment agrees with the oxygen sensitivity of Methanothermus, which is extreme even for a methanogen.

Cells of the archae Methanothermus are immotile rods, about 1 to 4 µm long and 0.3 to 0.4 µm wide. Methanothermus fervidus grows strictly anaerobic, within a temperature range from 65 to 97°C, with an optimum 83°C, in a mixture of H₂:CO₂ (80:20). Organic material does not stimulate its growth. Hence, it is a primary producer of food.

The cell of M. fervidus is a slightly curved rod 0.3-0.4 µm wide and 3-5 µm long. Stetter, K. O. (in Brock, T. D. 1986:43-54). What is the volume and surface of these cells?

Volume: 0.203 258 µm³. Surface: 2.851.484 µm². Ratio: 1:14

Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum

Where does this archae live? How large is it? What does it eat? How much information does it contain? Why has it arisen?

Cells are slender, cylindrical, irregularly crooked rods, 0.35-0.6 µm wide and 3-7 µm long, with frequent filaments 10-120 µm in length. CO₂ as sole carbon source, NH₃ as sole nitrogen source, sulfide as sole sulfur source, and H₂-CO₂ as sole energy source. Not stimulated by organic additions, although acetate may be assimilated. Habitat: thermophilic, anaerobic, sewage-sludge digesters. Optimum temperature: 65-70°C. Optimum pH: 7.2-7.6. Bergey's Manual (1989:2176).

All species grow with H₂-CO₂ as a substrate for methanogenesis. Most species of Methanobacterium are capable of autotrophic growth with CO₂ as sole carbon source. Temperature optimum 65-70°C. The species Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum is 0.4 µm wide and 3 - 120 µm long. It has been isolated from anaerobic digesters, sewage sludge, manure, ground water, and formation water of oil-bearing rocks. The Prokaryotes (1992:731).

Cell volume and surface, when using the rather small size of 0.4 µm width and 3.0 µm length. Volume: 0.376991 µm³. Surface: 4.021 238 µm². Ratio: 1:10.6.

The genome of Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum is 1.0·10⁹ Da, as reported by Klein, A. and M. Schnorr (1984:630). That is 1 515 151 base pairs. The genome is 505 µm long. It is 168 times longer, than the cell, with its length of 3 µm. - R. Stettler and T. Leisinger have determined the genome size of four different strains of Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum (1992:7232):

M. thermoautotrophicum Marburg       1 623 000 bp

M. thermoautotrophicum H                  1 725 000 bp

M. thermoautotrophicum Hveragerdi  1 728 000 bp

M. thermoautotrophicum YTB             1 707 000 bp

The average length of these four strains of Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum is 1 695 750 base pairs. 1 695 750 bp log 4 = 10^{1 020 943} bit (yes/no decisions).

Enzyme formyltransferase

The formylmethanofuran of Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum contains four enzymes and their subunits, with the following protein mass: Formyltransferase 164 kDa, 41 kDa, Cyclohydrolase 82 kDa, 41 kDa, Dehydrogenase is not determined, 32 kDa, Reductase 150 kDa, 36 kDa, as reported by B. Schwörer et al. (1993:230). - How much information was needed, just to make a single one of these enzymes, formyltransferase, for example? The enzyme formyltransferase has 164 kDa, and its subunit 41 kDa protein mass: together 205 kDa.

205 000 : 110 = 1863 amino acids log 20 = 10^{2 423} bit.

1863 x 3 = 5 590 nucleotides log 4 = 10^{3 365} bit.

This means: 5 590 base pairs are needed, to make the protein of the enzyme formyltransferase, with its protein mass of 205 kDa. And it takes 10^{3 365} yes/no decisions (bit), to put these 5 590 base pairs into the right place (like the letters of a text).

They make then 1 863 amino acids, with a mass of 205 kDa. Now, at least 10^{3 365} yes/no decisions (bit) are needed, to make out of them the needed protein, to align them in the right sequence, into a very complex three-dimensional order: into the enzyme formyltransferase. Even a single archaeal or bacterial enzyme is more complex, than anything, which man has been able to make till now. No scientist is able yet, to make such a functional enzyme. It is a masterpiece of biophysical design.

Douglas R. Smith and co-workers have studied the complete genome sequence of Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum H. They have published their findings in the Journal of Bacteriology, Nov. 1997, Vol. 179, p. 7135-7155. It has 1,751,377 base pairs. Methanobacterium thermoautrotrophicum H was isolated in 1971 from sewage sludge in Urbana, Illinois, USA. It is a lithoautotrophic, thermophilic archaeon. It grows at temperatures ranging from 40 to 70°C and optimally at 65°C. M. thermoautotrophicum conserves energy by using H₂ to reduce CO₂ to CH₄. And it synthesizes all of its cellular components from these same gaseous substrates plus N₂ or NH₄⁺ and inorganic salts. But despite this impressive biosynthetic capacity, M. thermoautotrophicum H and related strains have very small genomes (~1.7±0.2 Mb) (= 1.7 million base pairs). The genome of M. thermoautotrophicum H is a single, circular DNA molecule, 1,751,377 bp in length.

M. thermoautotrophicum synthesizes all of its cellular components and conserves energy from just CO₂, H₂, and salts. But, nevertheless, it has a genome that is only ~40% the size of the E. coli genome and only three times the size of the Mycoplasma genitalium genome. Considerable discussion has been focused on the concept of identifying the minimum number of genes needed for a minimal cell but identifying the minimum number of genes needed to constitute a fully independent autotrophic cell is an equal challenge and potentially has more practical value. When compared with the similar size genome of M. jannaschii, it appears that both methanogens still harbor more genes than they need for their lithoautotrophic lifestyles. Both contain duplicated genes, which presumably provide nonessential metabolic flexibility. - D. H. Smith (1997:7153).

Methanococcus

The different species of the methane-making archae Methanococcus are adapted to different temperatures. Some like it warm, some hot, and some boiling hot. How are they able to live there? How large are they? And how much DNA do they contain?

Methanococcus thermolithoautotrophicum lives at a temperature of 30-70°C, at an optimum of 65°. Irregular coccus. Cell diameter 1.0 µm. Substrate for methane synthesis H₂ + CO₂, formate. Sulfur source: Sulfide, elemental sulfur, thiosulfate, sulfite, sulfate. Nitrogen source NH₃, N₂. pH range 6.5-8. Autotrophic growth. Bergey's Manual (1989:2190).

Methanococcus thermolithoautotrophicum SN1 genome length 1.1·10⁹ daltons. A. Klein and M. Schnorr (1984:630). That are 1 666 666 base pairs, when calculated at 660 Da/bp. This spherical cell has a diameter of 1.0 µm. Volume: 0.523 599 µm³. Surface: 3.141 593 µm². Ratio: 1:6.

Genome. The archae Methanococcus thermolitoautotrophicum SN 1 has a genome size of 1.1·10⁹ daltons. That are 1 666 666 base pairs. 1 666 666 bp log 4 = 10^{1 003 432} bit information (yes/no decisions).

Methanococcus voltae is an irregular coccus (ball). Cell diameter 1.5 µm. Substrate for methane synthesis H₂ + CO₂, formate. Growth requirement: Acetate, Isoleucine, Leucine, Ca². Temperature range, 20-45°C. pH range 6.5-8. Optimal salinity NaCl 0.2-0.4. Mobile by means of polar tufts of flagella. Obligate anaerobic. Methanococcus is either mesophilic (temperature optima: 35-40°C), thermophilic (temperature optima: 5°C) or extremely thermophilic (temperature optimum 85°C). All species grow rapidly on H₂ + CO₂. Under optimal conditions, generation times vary from 1 h for the thermophilic species to 3 h or the mesophilic species. All species grow with formate, except M. jannashii.

The average genome length of seven strains of Methanocococus voltae is 1 880 286 base pairs (range of 7 strains: 1 870 000 pb to 1 899 000 pb). It consists of one circular chromosome. - Sitzmann and Klein (1991:505-513). The archae Methanococcus voltae has a genome size of 1 880 286 base pairs. It contains at least 10^{1 132 044} bit of information. So much information is needed, just to put its base pairs into the right order.

Methanococcus jannashii was taken from the base of a 'white smoker' chimney on the East Pacific Rise at 20° 50´N latitude and 109° 06´W longitude at a depth of 2600 m. The isolate was a motile irregular coccus with an osmotically fragile cell wall and a complex flagellar system. Temperature range 58-85°C. In defined medium with 20% H₂ and 80% CO₂, the isolate had a doubling time of 26 minutes at 85°C. The pH range for growth was 5.2 to 7.0 with an optimum near 6.0. NaCl was required for growth with an optimum of 2 to 3%.

Individual cells were irregular (almost raisin-like) cocci, with a width of up to 1.5 µm. The flagellar system was complex: two waved-bundles of flagella each contained a high number of flagella arranged in subgroups were found to be inserted close to the same cell pole. The flagellar bundles each with a 'corkscrew' configuration, with both 'corkscrews' wound in the same direction, around a common axis. Flagella longer than 5 µm were not found. - Jones, W. J. (1983:254-261).

The Methanococcus jannashii genome consists of three physically distinct elements: (i) a large circular chromosome of 1,664,976 base pairs (bp), which contains 1682 predicted protein-coding regions, (ii) a large circular extrachromosomal element (ECE) of 58,407 bp, which contains 44 predicted protein-coding regions, and (iii) a small circular ECE of 16,550 bp, which contains 12 predicted protein-coding regions. C. J. Bult et al. (1996:1058).

M. jannashii has a total of 1,739,933 base pairs. 1 739 933 log 4 = 10^{1 047 544} bit information (sequence alternatives) are needed, to put each base pair into the right place.

Ribosomal RNA and its Protein

The archae Methanococcus vannielli 16S rRNA is 1466 nucleotides long. Jarsch, M. (1985:55). It contains at least 10⁸⁸² bit of information.

The 23S rRNA of Methanococcus vannielli is 2920 nucleotides long. Acca, M. (1994:634). It contains 10¹⁷⁵⁸ bit information.

Methanococcales        30S mass 1 000 000, protein mass 516 000

50S mass 1 810 000 , protein mass 848 000.

From M. Acca (1994:634)

Total protein mass of its 30S and 50S = 1 446 000 : 110 = 12 400 amino acids log 20 = 10^{16 132} bit information. Total rRNA mass of its 30S and 50S = 1 446 000 : 330 = 4 381 nucleotides log 4 = 10²⁶³⁷ bit. Together: 10^{18 769} bit (yes/no decisions).

Already at the level of the code one can find out, that it has been thought out by an intelligent person. The DNA/RNA code, with its four letter alphabet, and the protein code, with its 20 amino acid letters, clearly disprove evolution and prove creation.

The archaebacterium Methanococcus jannashii. Temperature optimum, 85°C. Photo by Helmut König and K. O. Stetter. From M. T. Madigan et al. (1997:752) Fig. 17.7a.

Thermophilum

Where does the archae Thermophilum live? How large is it? And what does it eat? - Prof. K. O. Stetter (1986:55-57) reports: Hot acidic to neutral solfataric spring contain organisms of the genus Thermophilum. These filamentous bacteria are so thin that they can easily be overlooked. They grow anaerobically by heterotrophic nutrition. Thermophilum can be isolated from various solfataric hot springs in Iceland, Italy, the Azores, and the USA with environmental temperatures between 55 and 100°C and pH values between 3 and 7. Thermophilum grows heterotrophically as a consumer of organic material and about 90% of the isolates are dependent on a cell component of other archaebacteria.

Thermophilum is a filamentous rod, about 0.17 to 0.35 µm in diameter. And the cells are 1 to more than 100 µm long. Its median length is between 5 and 10 µm. -What is its volume, surface, and volume/surface ratio, when using its smallest diameter of 0.17 µm and its shortest length of 5 µm? Volume: 0.113 490 µm³. Surface: 2.715 750 µm². Ratio: 1:24.

Thermofilum pendens. From K. O. Stetter and W. Zillig, in Carl R. Woese, The Bacteria, Vol. VIII (1985:128) Fig. 15.

Pyrobaculum

Where does this rod-shaped archae live? How large is it? And what does it eat? - R. Huber and co-workers (1987:95-101) write:

Seven groups of a new group of rod-shaped hyperthermophilic neutrophilic archaebacteria were isolated from boiling neutral to alkaline solfataric waters from the Azores, Iceland, and Italy. The organisms are strict anaerobes, growing optimally at 100°C. The cells are motile due to peritrichous or bipolar polytrichous flagellation. The isolates grow facultatively chemolithoautotrophically or obligately heterotrophically. Molecular hydrogen or complex organic substances are used as electron donors.

The new isolates were rod-shaped almost rectangular cells, about 1.5 to 8 µm long and 0.5 µm wide. More than 80% of the cells of H10 were 3 to 3.5 µm, whereas those of GEO 3 were 2.5 µm long. Strain H10 exhibited peritrichous flagellation (flagella about 13 nm in diameter; up to 5 µm long). GEO 3 showed bipolar polytrichous flagellation with up to three flagella (about 13 nm in diameter) up to 15 µm long; at each end. Cells are Gram-negative and are surrounded by an S-layer of protein subunits.

In closed culture bottles isolate GEO3 grew at temperatures between 74°C and 102°C with an optimum at 100°C (about 260 min doubling time). The isolate H10 grew between 78°C and 102°C with an optimum at 102°C (690 min doubling time.) Growth of all new isolates was observed between pH 5 and 7 with optimum at around 6. Isolates GEO2, GEO3, GEO4 and H16 were able to grow alternatively chemolithoautotrophically in mineral medium in the presence of elemental sulfur, molecular hydrogen and CO₂, using the formation of H₂S as an energy source.

Pyrobaculum at its smallest size (0.5 µm wide and 1.5 µm long): Volume: 0.294 524 µm³. Surface: 2.748 893 µm². Ratio: 1:9.

Pyrobakulum aerophilum. From R. Rachel and K. O. Stetter. In M. T. Madigan (1997:762) F. 17.19.

Thermoproteus uzoniensis

E. A. Bonch-Osmolvskaya and co-workers (1990:556-559) have studied the archae Thermoproteus uzoniensis, an extremely thermophilic archae from Kamchatka continental hot springs.

The site of their field research was the caldera of the Uzon volcano and Geyser Valley, both in the southwestern part of Kamchatka peninsula. The samples of water and mud they have taken from hot springs and mud holes and samples of soil from thermal fields. The cells of all isolates were straight or slightly curved rods, 1-20 µm long and 0.3-0.4 µm wide. Growth of the Z-605 isolate observed between 74° and 102°C. The optimal temperature was about 90°C. All isolates grew well on the peptone medium, reducing elemental sulfur to hydrogen sulfur. Doubling time under optimal conditions was about 2 h.

Prof. K. O. Stetter writes (in Brock, T. D. 1986:52-55) about the genus Thermoproteus: Thermoproteus can be isolated anaerobically from various hot springs, mud pots and solfataric soils with pH values between 1.5 and 7 and temperatures of 70 to 100°C. Recently, similar organisms were obtained from a bore hole with slightly alkaline water (pH 8.5; 100°C) at the Kraffla geothermal power plant in Iceland. Good growth is obtained at temperatures between 80 and 92°C with an optimum around 88°C. The upper temperature limit is around 96°C. At those temperatures they grow only slowly.

Some isolates, such as H10 and Geo1 from Iceland, can grow at 102°C. Most Thermoproteus isolates (Thermoproteus tenax DSM 2078, Thermoproteus neutrophilus DSM 2388) are able to grow chemolithoautotrophically on H₂, CO₂, and S° by H₂S formation. Under these conditions, a trace of yeast extract (002%) stimulates growth but is not essential. Alternately, most Thermoproteus strains grow heterotrophically by sulfur respiration on organic material forming CO₂ and H₂S. Exception: Thermoproteus neutrophilus is a strict autotroph. Stetter, K. O. (1986:52-55).

The archae Thermoproteus tenax has a genome length of 2 700 000 base pairs (Zillig, W. 1986:172). - 2 700 000 bp = 1.782•10⁹ daltons. It weighs 2.959011•10^-15 g. It is 900 µm long.

Genome. The archaebacteteria Thermoproteus tenax has a genome size of 2 700 000 base pairs. 2 700 000 bp log 4 = 10^{1 625 561} bit information.

Ribosomal RNA and Protein. Thermoproteus tenax 16S rRNA has 1504 nucleotides. It contains 10⁹⁰⁵ bit information.

Thermoproteus tenax 30S mass 1.15•10⁶, protein mass 657 000

50S mass 1.97•10⁶, protein mass 940 000

                            Cammarano, P. (1986:142).

Total protein mass of its 30S and 50S ribosomal subunits: 1 597 000 : 110 = 14 518 amino acids log 20 = 10^{18 888} bit.

Total rRNA mass of its 30S and 50S = 1 523 000 : 330 = 4 615 nucleotides log 4 = 10^{2 778} bit.

10^{2 778} and 10^{18 888} = 10^{21 666} bit. The genome, with its 2 700 000 base pairs, has 10^{1 625 561} bit. The total of its genome and ribosomal rRNA and protein is then 10^{1 667 020} bit. So much information was at least needed, to make the genome and the ribosomal rRNA and protein of the archae Thermoproteus tenax. This clearly proves to me: The 16S-rRNA-tree of life of the evolutionists is just a huge fraud, designed to fool the ignorant people.

Thermoproteus tenax. From K. O. Stetter and W. Zillig. In Carl R. Woese, The Bacteria (1985) Fig. 17.

Desulfurocuccus mucosus

This is a true spherical archae. Desulfurococcus mucosus grows strictly anaerobically and herotrophically within hot solfatara fields, although this organism is less extremely acidophilic. Desulfurococcus has been isolated from hot solfataric springs in Iceland and USA (Mt. Lassen National Park) and from an Italian geothermal power plant. More than half of the Icelandic springs yielding Dusulforococcus isolates had originally temperatures above 90°C and pH values between 5 and 6.5.

Desulfurococcus can grow strictly anaerobically at 85°C in Allen's medium supplemented with sulfur and organic material such as yeast extract, tryptone, or casein. Cells of Desulfurococcus are regular spheres, normally 0.5 to 1 µm in diameter. Cells are surrounded by a protein subunit envelope. Stetter, K. O., in Brock, T. D. (1986:57-59).

Optimum temperature for growth of Desulfurococcus mucosus, 85°C. It lives in solfataric hot springs at pH 2.2-6.5 and up to 97°C. Its genome is 2 000 000 base pairs long. - Zillig, W. (1986:172; 1989:2246).

Genome. The heat loving archae Desulfurococcus mucosus has a genome size of 2 000 000 base pairs. It took at least 10^{1 204 119} bit of information (yes/no decisions), to put its base pairs into the right place.

Ribosomal RNA and is Protein. The heat-loving archae Desulfurococcacae has a ribosomal 30S mass of 1 160 000, and a protein mass of 660 000. Its 50S has a total mass of 1 920 000, and a protein mass of 864 000, according to Marco Acca (1994:634).

The total rRNA mass of its 30S and 50S is 1 556 000 : 330 0 4715 nucleotides log 4 = 10²⁸³⁸ bit. Total protein mass of its 30S and 50S ribosomal subunits is 1 524 000 : 110 = 13 854 amino acids log 20 = 10^{18 024} bit. All together, the genome and the ribosomes (rRNA and its protein) needed 10^{1 224 981} bit, to put them into the right place.

Desulfurococcus mucosus. From K. O. Stetter and W. Zillig. In Carl R. Woese, The Bacteria Volume VIII (1985:111) Fig. 9.

Methanopyrus kandleri

Professor Karl O. Stetter (1991:239-247) has studied this archae. He writes: The new Methanopyrus isolates were obtained from both the abyssal (2000 m) Guaymas hot vents and the more shallow (106 m) continuation of the Mid Atlantic Ridge at Kolbeinsey, north of Iceland. They belong to the same species as Methanpyrus kandleri. In view of the thousands of kilometers in between both locations and the extreme oxygen sensitivity of Methanopyrus, the occurrence of the same species is surprising and the modes of spreading are still unknown.

Most likely the long survival observed at low temperature is a prerequisite for spreading within the cold ocean water. Within its biotope, Methanopyrus kandleri thrives strictly chemolithoautotrophically on H₂ and CO₂ and is therefore a primary producer of organic matter from an ecological point of view. H₂ may either originate geothermally from the magma chambers or may be formed by the anaerobic pyrite reaction. Methanopyrus may be responsible for the biological methane formation between 90°C and 110°C within submarine hydrothermal systems. The novel isolates are submarine hypertherphillic chemolithoautotrophic methanogens, which are unique by their growth temperatures of up to 110°C. Together with the sulfidogenic Pyrodictium they represent life at the upper temperature border.

Cells are gram-positive rods, about 0.5 µm in diameter and 2 to 14 µm (majority 8 to 10) longs. Motile by polar tufts of flagella. Chemolithoautotrophic. Methane formed from H₂ and CO₂, serve as energy- and carbon source. Growth between 84°C and 110°C (opt. 98°C). 58-min doubling time. Isolate AV19 grew between 84°C and 110°C with an optimum at around 98°C (doubling time: 50 min). No growth was observed at 80°C and 111°C. The pH range of growth was between 5.5 and 7 with an optimum around 6.5. Growth occurred at salt concentrations between 0.2 and 4% NaCl, with an optimum around 2% NaCl.

Methanopyrus kandleri – the most thermophilic of all known methane makers (upper limit 110°C). Thin sections of cells that measure 0.5 x 2-14 µm. From R. Rachel and K. O. Stetter . In M. T. Madigan et al. (1985:764) Fig. 17.22.

Pyrodictium abyssi

Ursula Pley and co-workers have studied it. They report (1991:245-253): Novel hyperthermophile heterotrophic members of the Archae domain were isolated from marine hot abyssal as well as from shallow vents off Mexico and Iceland, respectively. The isolates grew between 80 and 110°C with an optimum around 97C. They fermented carbohydrates, proteins, cell homogenates, acetate, and formate.

Isolates AV2 and Kol 7 grew between pH 4.7 and 7.1, with an optimum at around 5.5. The temperature range for growth was between 80 and 110°C, with an optimum at around 97°C (60 min doubling time). Addition of elemental sulfur did not change the growth rate. The isolates grew between 0.7 and 4.2% NaCl. Anaerobic conditions were required.

Due to our results the genus Pyrodictium comprises both autotrophic and heterotrophic species. Both are growing at the upper temperature border of life. Under an ecological point of view, members of Pyrodictium can be now considered to be producers of organic matter within marine high temperature hydrothermal system.

Cells of Pyrodictium are disk- to dish-shaped, often with flat protrusions. Highly irregular in diameter from 0.3 to 2.5 µm, often only 0.2 µm thick. Ultra thin fibers about 0.05-0.025 µm in diameter are formed, which build networks connecting the cells. Gram-negative. 

Pyrodictium occultum and Pyrodictium brockii

Where do these two species of the marine archae Pyrodictium live? How large are they? What do they eat? - Ursula Pley and co-workers write about Pyrodictium occultum: Cell polymorphous disks and dishes, about 0.3-2.5 µm in diameter and usually 0.2 µm thick. Networks of fibers formed. Growth by hydrogen-sulfur autotrophy or, in the presence of 0.02% yeast extract, on H₂/CO₂ and S₂O₃ ^2-. Optimal growth temperature around 105°C. Growth between 0.2 and 12°C NaCl and pH 4.5 to 7.2.

And about Pyrodictium brockii they report: Cells polymorphous disks and dishes, about 0.3-2.5 µm in diameter and usually 0.2 µm thick. Networks of fibers are formed. Growth by hydrogen-sulfur-autotrophy or in the presence of 0.02% yeast extract, on H₂/CO₂ and SO₃ ^2-. Optimal growth temperature around 105°C. Growth between 0.2 and 12% NaCl and pH 4.5-7.2. (1991:251, 252).

Prof. Karl O. Stetter and co-workers (1983:535-551) say about Pyrodictium occultum and Pyrodictium brockii: Six isolates of a new genus of anaerobic archaebacteria , named Pyodictium, were isolated from a submarine solfataric field off Vulcano, Italy. These disc-shaped organisms grew at at least 110°C, with an optimum around 105°C, and formed highly unusual networks of fibers. They are hydrogen-sulphur-autotrophs. Two species can be distinguished: Pyrodictium occultum and Pyrodictium brockii.

The new organisms do not grow below 80°C. Optimal growth occurs at around 105°C. In the case of isolate Pl-19, doubling times were determined at 85°, 100° and 105°C to be 550, 220 and 110 minutes, respectively. The organisms even grew at 110°C (with a doubling time of about 2 h). At 120°C, no growth could be observed. The isolates were able to grow autolithotrophically in mineral medium in the presence of sulfur, hydrogen and CO₂ by hydrogen sulfur autotrophy.

At temperatures below 80°C, cells of Pyrodictium cannot grow, but can survive for long periods. Their survival for 2 years at 4°C is highly unusual. Possibly, the extremely thermo-adapted enzymes do no function at these low temperatures, thus preventing death by starvation. The cells are always sensitive to oxygen in the active state. - Stetter, K. O. (1983:535-551).

Pyridictium occultum, platinum-shaded pili-like appendices. From K. O. Stetter and W. Zillig. In Carl R. Woese, The Bacteria (1985:158) Fig. 39.

Pyrodictium occultum, thin section. From K. O. Stetter and W. Zillig. In Carl R. Woese, The Bacteria (1985:157) Fig. 38. 

Pyrolobus fumarii

Elisabeth Blöchl and co-workers at the University of Regensburg, Germany, report about an archae, which extends the upper temperature of life limit to 113°C:

A novel, irregular, coccoid-shaped archaeum was isolated from a hydrothermally heated black smoker wall at the TAG site at the Mid Atlantic Ridge (depth 3650 meters). It grew at between 90°C and 113°C (optimum 106°C and pH 4.0-6.5 (optimum 5.5) and 1%-4% salt (optimum 1.7%). The organism was a facultatively aerobic obligate chemolithoautotroph gaining energy by H₂-oxidation. The new isolate was able to form colonies on plates (at 102°C). Exponentially growing cultures survived a one-hour autoclaving at 121°C. Blöchl, E. (1997:14).

Cells of isolate 1A are regularly to irregularly lobe-shaped cocci, about 0.7-2.5 µm in diameter. Metabolism: By its energy-yielding metabolism, isolate 1A was an obligate hydrogen-dependent chemolithoautotroph. Depending on the electron acceptor, three different metabolic types were evident.

1.      Nitrate ammonification. Under strictly anaerobic conditions, in the presence of NO₃ and H₂, isolate 1A showed vigorous growth using nitrate as the terminal electron acceptor. Nitrate was reduced to ammonia, which accumulated within the culture medium.

2.      Thiosulfate reduction. In the presence of H₂, in strictly anaerobic 1/2 SME medium. The new isolate grows by thiosulfate reduction, forming H₂S cells.

3.      Microaerophilic hydrogen oxidation. Isolate 1A could be adapted to grow by aerobic hydrogen oxidation at very low oxygen concentrations.

Isolate 1A grew between 90°C and 113°C with an optimum at around 106°C (1-hour doubling time). At 90°C, the doubling time was 36 h. No growth could be observed at 85°C or at 115°C. the pH range of growth was between pH 4.0 and 6.5).

The novel isolate 1A represents the most extreme hyperthermophile known so far. By thriving within the temperature range of 95°C-113°C, it extends our knowledge about the upper temperature limit of life. The temperature range of growth of the new isolate appears surprisingly narrow (about 20°C), if compared with that of other organisms (including hyperthermophiles).

Pyrolobus fumarii is well adapted to its deep-sea vent environment by its resistance to high pressure, its salt requirement, and its high growth temperature. Using CO₂ as the single carbon source and H₂ as the obligate electron donor in its energy-yielding reaction, this organism carries out the primary production of organic matter at the deep-sea hydrothermal vents.

Both CO₂ and H₂ are commonly found in hydrothermal fluids, as well as the electron acceptors nitrate and thiosulfate. Similar to Pyrobaculum aerophilum, a denitrifying hyperthermophile from shallow marine vents, Pyrolobus fumarii is able to gain energy by hydrogen oxidation at very low oxygen concentrations. In the largely reducing environment within the walls of hot smokers, the source of low-level oxygen is so far unknown. The hydrothermal venting system might entrain oxygen-rich deep-sea water into the porous black smoker walls, making traces of free oxygen available to Pyrolobus fumari. ... Because they require only the basic nutrients generated by volcanism, these organisms would be able to exist on any planet that possessed volcanic activity and liquid water. - E. Blöchl and co-     workers (1997:19, 20).

'Simple' creatures

Professor Siegfried Scherer, Director of the Institute of Microbiology at University of Munich-Freising, says about this: "The discovery of archaebacteria has nurtured speculations that these microorganisms could be good models for the first living cell-like systems, which prebiotic chemistry has produced. However, elaborate examinations of these organisms have shown fascinating metabolism-systems. And often they are still not understood. They are not 'primitive' at all. The archaebacteria are rather real 'metabolic artists'. (Stanley S.) Miller reacts to the speculation that hyperthermophile archaebacteria could be models for simple, early forms of life-, as follows: 'The hyperthermophiles may be forerunners of later forms of life. But one can hardly call them primitive. They are as complicated, as we are.'" (1998:147

Result. There is no sedimentary evidence at all that this archaebacterium is one of the oldest one-celled organisms on earth. It has not evolved at all into any "higher" forms of life. It is able to live in boiling water, up to 113°C under high pressure, because it is perfectly adapted to this extreme environment. Any important changes within this automatic chemical factory would cause it, to perish, not to evolve upward into any form of higher life. The "phylogenetic tree of life" of the evolutionists is disproved by the sedimentary record. It exists only in the fantasy of these people. Inorganic matter does not know anything about the living cell. The bacterial and archaeal cell is a fully automated chemical factory. The information (chemical know-how) it contains, can only have come from an intelligent person, the Creator. The Bible is right, when it says about the atheists, according to the King James Version: "The fool hath said in his heart, There is no God." (Psalms 14:1).