Chapter 7: Graviational Field

How does the gravitational wave work? How long is it? How much energy does it carry? How does it compare with the electromagnetic wave?

Paul Davies and John Gribbin: "A beam of gravitons with the same energy and wavelength as a high-power laser (which is a beam of photons) would pass straight through the Earth almost undiminished, losing less than one per cent of its energy along the way. ... Almost all fundamental particles possess a quantum version of rotation, which is called spin and which always comes in certain fixed multiples of a basic quantity. For historical reasons, the basic unit of spin is taken to be one-half. The electron and the neutrino, for example, each have spin one-half. The photon has spin one, the graviton has spin two. No particles are known with spins greater than two, and theory suggests that such objects are impossible.

"It is a combination of mass and spin that primarily determines fundamental properties of the different messenger particles, and explains most of the differences between the four forces of nature. The mass of a messenger particle determines the range of the associated force: the bigger, the shorter the range. If the spin of the messenger particle is an even number (or zero), then theory says that the force it produces has to be attractive; if the spin is an odd number, then the force is repulsive.

"Nature has made use of massless particles with both spin one and spin two. With no mass, such messengers can range across the entire Universe. The photon is the massless spin-one particle. It does indeed range across the entire Universe, and like electrical charges (two positive or two negative) do indeed repel one another. The graviton is the massless spin-two particle. It, too, ranges across the Universe, but is always attractive, as theory predicts.

"There is a growing feeling that the physical Universe constitutes a unity binding not only similar particles in different places, but also the various different particles and forces. Ultimately, one might expect all of nature - particles, fields of force, space and time, and the origin of the Universe - to be part of an all-embracing mathematical scheme." - Davies, P. and J. Gribbin (1991:240-254).

Joseph Silk is Professor for Astronomy at the University of Berkeley, California. He says about the graviton: "The gravitational counterpart to the photon is the graviton, the quantum of the gravitational radiation. One should expect, that a chaotic enough early universe contained many gravitons, which were made by quickly changing gravitational fields. But also today, there should still be a noticeable background of cosmological gravitons of a short wavelength, if our hypothesis, that the temperature, when coming closer to the singularity, will rise up above all limits, is really describing the physics of the first milliseconds.

"In this scenario, the high temperature and radiation-density will cause then the gravitons to be closely coupled to the radiation (but because of the much weaker interaction of the gravitons at a much earlier time), also the gravitons do contain a characteristic energy distribution and the interactions of the gravitons, and a black-body-distribution must not necessarily be present. With decreasing density, the gravitons will loose their equilibrium and disconnect themselves from matter. As a result, they are expanding then unhindered. Their energy decreases till our present epoch, and the typical energy of an original graviton should have now a temperature of a little less than 1 K or a wave-length of about 1 mm." - Silk, J. (1990:141, 142).

Gravitational Law

What have scientists found out now about the law of gravitation? How does gravity work? Why does it work?

Hans C. Ohanian is Professor of Physics at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. He says in his textbook Physics (1989:212): "The law of universal gravitation formulated by Newton states: Every particle attracts every other particle with a force directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

"The gravitational force ... is an inverse-square force: it decreases by a factor of 4 when the distance increases by a factor of 2; it decreases by a factor of 9 when the distance increases by a factor of 3; etc. Figure 9.2 (in his book) is a plot of the magnitude of the gravitational force as a function of distance. Although the force decreases with distance, it never quite reaches zero. Thus every particle in the universe continually attracts every other particle at least a little bit, even if the distance between them is very, very large.

"The gravitational force does not require any contact between the interacting particles. In reaching from one remote particle to another, the gravitational force somehow bridges the empty space between the particles. This is called action-at-a-distance. It is also quite remarkable that the gravitational force between two particles is unaffected by the presence of intervening masses. For example, a particle in Washington attracts a particle in Peking with exactly the force given by Eq. (1), even though all the bulk of the Earth lies between Washington and Peking. This means that it is impossible to shield a particle from the gravitational attraction of another particle." (1989:213).

"Since the gravitational attraction between two particles is completely independent of the presence of other particles, it follows that the net gravitational force between two bodies (for example, the Earth and the Moon, or the Earth and an apple) is merely the vector sum of the individual forces between all the particles making up the bodies, that is, the gravitational force obeys the principle of superposition. ... this implies that the net gravitational force between two spherical bodies acts just as though the mass of each body were concentrated at the center of its respective sphere. This important result is called Newton’s theorem. Since the Sun, the planets, and most of their satellites are almost exactly spherical, we can treat all of these celestial bodies as pointlike particles in all calculations concerning their gravitational attractions." - Ohanian, H. C. (1989:213, 214).

Who (or what) is bringing this force from one body to another one? In other words: What is this "material agent", which is transporting the gravitational force?

Prof. H. C. Ohanian: "According to the modern view, there is indeed a ‘material agent’ that acts as a mediator of force, conveying the force over the distance from one body to another body. This agent is the field. A gravitating or electrically charged body generates a gravitational or electric field, which permeates the (apparently) empty space around the body and exerts pushes or pulls whenever it comes in contact with another body. Thus, fields convey forces from one body to another through action-by-contact. No signal can propagate faster than the speed of light." (1989:290, 291).

"By joining the points at which the gravitational potential has the same value, we may obtain a series of surfaces called equipotential surfaces. In Fig. 13-17 (in his book) also the equipotential surfaces have been indicated by dashed lines. Note that in each case the equipotential surfaces are perpendicular to the lines of force. This can be verified, in general, in the following way. Let us take two points, very close to each other, on the same equipotential surface. When we move a particle from one of these points to the other, the work done by the gravitational field acting on the particle is zero because work done is equal to change in potential energy, and in this case there is no change in the potential energy because the two points have the same gravitational potential. That this work is zero implies that the force is perpendicular to the displacement. Therefore the direction of the gravitational field is perpendicular to the equipotential surfaces. Therefore, if we know the lines of force, we can easily plot the equipotential surfaces, and conversely."

"A solid homogeneous sphere produces, on outside points, a gravitational field and potential identical to those of a particle of the same mass located at the center of the sphere. This result still holds true when the sphere, instead of being homogenous, has its mass distributed with spherical symmetry; when the sphere’s density is a function of the distance from the center only. Therefore the gravitational field at a given point inside the homogenous sphere is proportional to the distance r from the center." - Ohanian, H. C. (1989:396).

The gravitational field of the universe, with its center of gravity (point source) and its concentric spherical wave fronts. After: H. C. Ohanian (1989:947). The gravitational field of the universe has forced its energy/mass into its own shape: into a sphere or ball. Each spherical wave front comes always from the center of the sphere. They are spreading out evenly in all directions from their center of gravity. They are always moving in a vacuum with the speed of light, since they have no restmass.

The gravitational field, with its lines of force and equipotential circles, and concentric spherical shells (wave fronts), is made and controlled by the circle-number pi, together with the other universal fundamental constants, with perfect precision. When using only 100 decimals of pi, a circle, containing now our whole universe, the circumference of the circle will have an error of less than 10/1,000,000 mm. Our universe has now a radius of about 12 billion light-years. Its spatial and temporal order can only arise and be preserved by information (cosmic software), transmitted instantaneously. Information, moving there only with the speed of light, is far too slow. It would be like a snail crawling around in the garden.

Prof. P. G. Bergmann: "Einstein’s theory of gravitation predicts the existence of gravitational waves, with properties similar to those of electromagnetic radiation. Such waves are emitted by massive bodies undergoing acceleration: they propagate at the same speed as electromagnetic waves, at the speed of light. When the waves pass massive particles, they cause them to accelerate: after the passage of a pulse of gravitational radiation, each particle has its velocity changed. Moreover, when a gravitational wave pulse sweeps across a cloud of particles initially at rest relative to each other, they then will move relative to each other. These relative motions are perpendicular to the direction in which the gravitational wave traveled.

"The general theory of relativity predicts the amounts of energy involved in the generation of gravitational waves. Compared to the generation of electromagnetic waves by moving electric charges, the intensities calculated for gravitational waves are exceedingly small. Accordingly, their discovery calls for very sensitive detectors, involving sophisticated technology.

"Gravitational waves are polarized; they cause acceleration at right angles in the direction of propagation, resembling in this respect electromagnetic radiation. But electromagnetic waves and gravitational waves have quite different polarization characteristics. ... Double stars constitute one kind of source of gravitational waves. A double star consists of two suns that orbit about each other, and about their common center of gravity, somewhat as the earth orbits about the sun. The whole motion takes place in a plane. This system, according to the theory, emits gravitational radiation in all directions. In the orbital plane, this radiation will have, as its planes of polarization, the orbital plane and the plane at right angles. ... The power of gravitational gravitation can be estimated as follows: A double-star system possesses two kinds of energy. One of the rest energy, mc², residing in the total mass of the constituents. The other kind of energy is the mechanical energy recognized in Newtonian physics. The magnitude of the mechanical energy is of the order mυ², where υ represents the velocity of the component relative to each other."

How long is the gravitational wave? And how much energy does it carry?

Prof. P. G. Bergmann: "At a frequency of, say, one thousand hertz (1 kilohertz) the wavelength of the gravitational wave is 300 kilometers (or roughly 200 miles)" (1987:136-138, 145).

John Archibald Wheeler

John Archibald Wheeler was Professor of Physics at Princeton-University and at the University of Texas in Austin, and President of the American Physical Society. He is an expert on gravitation. - What has he found out about our present universe, its shape, and how gravity is working in it?

Prof. Em. J. A. Wheeler: "Just like any other force, moving unhindered through the emptiness of space, also the force of gravitation cannot move faster, than the speed of light. ... Nearly each characteristic of an electromagnetic wave, one also finds in a gravitation-wave. ... In both types of waves the propelling force drops inverse proportionally with the distance from its source - thus, not as fast as with the reciprocal value of the distance-square, as it is in the case with the law-of-force of the static electric load or a stationary mass-center." (1991:195, 203, 206).

"No characteristic of gravitation simplifies its study more, than its ability, to draw matter together into spherical collections of mass, known as planets, stars, and black holes. The material, drawing itself together, ... finally reaches a state, which is mostly static and spherical-symmetric. ... the importance of the Schwarzschild-geometry lies in the tendency of matter, to draw itself together into spherical or nearly spherical distributions of mass. Its symmetry explains itself from its static character and its sphere-symmetry. The space-time at one place grips only at the space-time of a place nearby. Grip and counter-grip must be equal - must add up to zero -, what they are also doing. This characteristic of this sphere-symmetry designates the Schwarzschild-geometry in regard to the other characteristics of gravitation as especially important and simple." (1991:136, 171).

"The blown-up air-balloon is a model of the expansion of the universe. ... Only the three-unit sphere is real. It alone describes the space, wherein we are living and moving about, according to the Einstein-Friedman-model of a closed, but unlimited universe." - Wheeler, J. A. (1991:235, 236).

"The speeds, with which the galaxies are moving now away from us - and from each other - do show us, that the expansion of the universe began about ten to twenty billion years ago. In those early days the universe was small. It had a large curvature of space and a high energy density was needed, in order to curve it into a sphere. Today it is large, has a much smaller curvature of space and needs a much lower mass-density, in order to be closed. Due to a large enough curvature, this density is five to ten times larger, than the density, indicated by the observation of stars and galaxies. ... Einstein’s well-tried geometric theory of gravitation, still serving as a standard, leaves no room for any whens and ifs, as far as the dynamics of a three-dimensional spherical (= ball shaped) model universe is concerned. It excludes a history of several cycles..." - Wheeler, J. A. (1991:246, 249).

Lines of force and the equipotential surfaces of the gravitational field, made by the earth and the moon. After M. Alfonso and E. F. Finn (1980:391). The lines of force (straight lines starting at center of gravity) are only a cross-section of the sphere, with the concentric shells of the gravitational field. They are all made and controlled by the circle-number pi, together with the other universal fundamental constants of physics. They are working with a precision of 1 : 10¹²³.

Result

The interacting particle of the gravitational field is the graviton. It has spin 2, has no restmass, and is moving in a vacuum with the speed of light. It is able to roam across the whole universe. The gravitational force between two particles is unaffected by the presence of intervening masses. One cannot shield a particle from the gravitational attraction of another particle. The graviton can easily pass through vast masses of ultra dense matter without being stopped. A beam of gravitons will pass through our planet earth almost undiminished. It is always attractive. Ordinary matter, even that of whole galaxies, is for gravitons completely pervious. Only when gravitons are reaching Planck’s energy, will they interact with matter.

A gravitating body generates a gravitational field, which fills the space around it, and pulls, whenever it comes into contact with another body. The gravitational force decreases with distance, but never quite reaches zero. Thus, every particle in the universe continually attracts every other particle at least a little bit, also when they are far apart. The gravitational field has its universal fundamental constant of gravity G. The gravitational field has lines of force, with their equipotential surfaces. They represent the concentric wave fronts of the gravitational field, with its center of gravity. The concentric wave front always has its center in the sphere. The gravitational wave fronts of the universe have their center in the middle of the spherical universe: at its center of gravity.

The spherical gravitational field of the universe has drawn its energy/mass into its own mould (since it was born): into a sphere, into the spherical shape of its own concentric wave fronts. The circle-number pi and the other fundamental constants of physics have made and controlled the concentric wave fronts (with the concentric shells). A circle, able to contain our whole spherical universe, will determine its circumference with an error of less than10/1,000,000 mm, when using only 100 decimal places behind pi!

There are two types of particles. (1) The particle with spin-one, like the photon (electromagnetic wave). It pushes the universe apart. (2) The particle with spin-two, the graviton (the gravitational wave. It draws the matter and gasses of the universe together. The gravitational field is only able to draw mass together and to form them into planets, stars, galaxies, and the whole universe into the spherical shape of its gravitational field, because it is balanced by the expanding force of its electromagnetic field. These two forces – expanding and contracting -, are exactly balanced, with a precision of 1 : 10¹²³. Without this perfect balance between the attracting force of the gravitational field and the expanding force of the electromagnetic field, there would be no universe, no star, and no planet Earth, and no mankind.

Also today, there is still a background of cosmological gravitons of a short wavelength (like the cosmic microwave radiation, with its 2.7-Kelvin-radiation). High temperature and radiation-density will cause the graviton to interact with radiation/matter. With decreasing density, the graviton will disconnect itself from matter. The typical energy of an original graviton (which arose, when the universe was born), should have now a temperature of a little less than 1 K and a wavelength of about 1 mm. Gravitational waves of the thermal background are about 10^-3 m long. The gravitational wave with a frequency of 1000 hertz (1 kilohertz) is 300 km long (or roughly 200 miles).

The gravitational wave (like the electromagnetic wave) in its longest and weakest form is 299,792,458 m long. It carries its own type of energy-quantity. When halving the length of the gravitational wave, its energy doubles. When doubling its wavelength (only up to 300,000 km), its energy is halved. The gravitational field contains information and high mathematics. And this information and mathematics exist independently of mankind. It has been there already for some 12 billion years. Information and mathematics are something non-material, spiritual, having their source in a spiritual world. This clearly disproves the doctrine of evolution, as now commonly taught.