Chapter 3: Universe: contracting and expanding

The gravitational force draws the mass and energy of our universe together into the shape of a sphere. And the expanding force pulls the mass and energy of our universe apart. The expanding and attracting forces are perfectly balanced. It expands in such a way, that stars, planets, and galaxies are able to form. They are controlled by the critical energy density. But why is the critical energy of our universe preserved? Why has it stayed the same during the last 12 billion years, since it was born?

Marcus Chown reports under the heading, "The fifth element" in New Scientist, 3 April 1999 p. 29-32, about the critical density of the Universe: "Cosmologists like to talk about the density of the Universe in terms of the so-called 'critical density'. This corresponds to a Universe whose total energy - kinetic plus potential - is zero. The popular theory of inflation, which states that the Universe suddenly ballooned in size during the first split second after its birth, predicts that the Universe should have precisely the critical density. A universe that starts off with a density even marginally different from the critical density will either rocket up in density or plummet down. This fate is avoided only by a Universe, which starts out at precisely critical density. It hovers there forever. Quantum theory views the particles of nature as excitations of 'fields' which extend throughout space. For instance, photons are localised bumps in the electromagnetic field, electrons and positrons are bumps in the electron-positron field, and so on." (1999:30, 31).

"Actually, you can't have an infinite energy density: the laws of physics break down way at the so-called Planck energy density where gravity challenged the other forces of nature. So it seems reasonable to suppose that something stops the vacuum energy going above this. But even then, the energy would be much too large: the Planck energy density is 10123 times bigger than the measured energy density of springy space. This has been described by Nobel laureate Steven Weinberg as 'the worst failure of an order-of-magnitude estimate in the history of sciences.' While some theorists are wrestling to explain the observed values of the energy packed into the vacuum, others have a different but related puzzle in mind: why is the energy density of space today so close to the energy density of matter?

"This is extremely peculiar. Remember that the energy density of space never changes, no matter how much space stretches. So the energy density of space is exactly the same today as it was in the first split-second of the Universe. Contrast this with the energy of matter and radiation, which have been grossly diluted by the expanding Universe. In fact, just after the big bang, the energy density of matter and radiation was 10100 times bigger than that of space." (1999:31).

How can the energy density of the Universe stay the same, while the Universe is expanding, diluting the energy density?

Markus Chown: "Negative pressure is like the tension in a piece of elastic: you have to work to stretch it. In the case of elastic, the work goes into heating the elastic. If you stretch space, the work you do ends up in the space. So, although you are diluting the energy density of space by increasing its volume, you are also adding energy to it. Now here's the amazing thing. If p = -u, the amount of energy you add exactly compensates for the dilution, so the energy of space stays constant.

"Because the energy density of space stays constant as space stretches, two galaxies that are twice as far apart as two others have twice as much springy stuff between them, so the repulsive force between them is twice as big, and so on. Since the force grows with distance it can be negligibly small on the planetary scale yet huge on the cosmic scale, explaining why we notice it only when we were able to see things at huge cosmic distances." (1999:31).

"The Lambda force grows remorselessly with the size of the Universe, so it will eventually completely dominate the gravitational pull from ordinary matter and radiation. It will make the Universe expand forever and dilute ordinary matter until its density approaches zero. By contrast, the effect of quintessence will be different: since it homes in on the energy density of matter, the two will drop away in step. Nevertheless, it will also lead in the end to an infinitely spread out, infinitely diluted Universe." - Marcus Chown (1999:32).

 

Prof. R. Kippenhahn: "The 'boundary' of our looking is enclosing us like a ball. ... The boundary, to which the observer is able to look, is enclosing him like a ball. It is a kind of horizon." (1991:233).

Prof. J. A. Wheeler: "The blown-up air-balloon is a model for the expansion of the universe. ... Only the three-unit sphere is real. It alone describes the space, wherein we are living and moving about, according to the Einstein-Friedman-model of a closed, but unlimited universe. ... Einstein's well-tried geometric theory of gravitation, still serving as a standard, leaves no room for any whens and ifs, as far as the dynamics of a three-dimensional spherical (= ball-shaped) model universe is concerned. It excludes a history of several cycles." (1991: 236. 249)

 

The value of pi

How precise does the circle-number pi work?

"Many in school have learned, that pi gives the ratio of the circumference to the circle-diameter. Most are satisfied with the approximate arithmetic value of 3,14159. But it is not possible, to state the number pi precisely, because it has infinitely many decimal places.

"Yasumasa Canada of the University of Tokyo has now calculated the number pi with the computer to over six billion positions. This number is of no possible use, 'because 39 digits already are enough, to calculate the circumference of a circle around the known universe so exactly that it does not deviate more than the diameter of a hydrogen-atom', wrote the London Times. Professor Kanada explained, he enjoys it, to calculate the number pi, because that is why it is there. It would be better, not to enumerate his result. 'If one mentioned one figure per second, one would need, without making a pause, altogether 200 years,' Times remarked." From: Erwachet! 8. December 1996 S. 29.

 

Spatial and Temporal Order of Universe

How has the spatial and temporal order of the Universe arisen? And how is it preserved? Why has the spatial and temporal order of the Universe arisen? And why is it preserved? What kind of a shape does the universe have? Is the Universe a closed system? Or is there also something outside of our Universe, that is, beyond its cosmic horizon? What have we found out so far?

The cosmic horizon is the spherical horizon. It is the border of the visible Universe. It expands. Behind the cosmic horizon is the invisible universe. The visible Universe is inside of the spherical horizon. And the invisible Universe is outside of the cosmic horizon. So there is an outside, because the Universe is not a closed system. That is: Information, mathematics, and energy (the cosmic software), the Creator has put into it from outside. The Creator is outside of his creation, just as the painter is outside of his canvass (James Jeans).

Cosmic horizon, the spherical horizon: This is the distance, light has traveled since the universe began. Information is transmitted with the speed of light. Electromagnetic and gravitational waves move with the speed of light. In a vacuum at 299 792 458 m/s.

The universe is now about 12 billion (10-149). years old. Its radius (half-diameter) is 12 billion light years. And it has now a diameter of about 24 billion light years. The circumference of the sphere of our universe is 75.4 billion light years. (24 x pi = 75.398 x 109) years old.

How fast is information in the Universe transmitted? A basic dogma of astrophysicists says: The information in the Universe is transmitted with the speed of light. No signal can travel faster than light. (J. D. Barrow, 1999).

 

Critical Density

On the largest cosmical scale, temperature and density differ no more than a few parts in 100 000. It is close to the critical divide, since it has begun. The Universe has increased 1032 times, since it was born. The expanding and contracting force of the Universe is equal to about 10120 times. That is about 10120 times larger, than what astronomers have observed. It is near smoothness and flatness. The critical density of the Universe is its total energy, kinetic and potential, is zero. The Universe started off in the first split second with precisely the critical density. It stays there forever. If its critical density is not quite precise, it will very quickly fall down or rise up. Quantum theory says: The particles of nature are excitations of "fields", which extend through space. Photons are local bumps in the electromagnetic field. Electrons and positrons are bumps in the electron-positron field, and so on. (J. D. Barrow, 1999).

The Planck energy is 10123 times bigger, than the measured energy of springy space. The vacuum energy density of the universe only 10-29 g/cm³. The Planck energy density is 1094 g/cm³. Ratio: 1 : 10123. The energy density of space never changes, no matter, how much space is stretched. So the energy density of space is exactly the same, as it was in the first split second of the Universe. The energy of matter and radiation has been much diluted. Just after the Universe was born, the density of its matter and radiation was 10100 times bigger, than that of space.

Negative pressure: It is like the tension in a piece of elastic. When you stretch it, you put energy into it. When you dilute the energy density of space, by increasing its volume, you add energy to it. The energy you add, by stretching it, compensates exactly for the dilution, so that the energy of space stays constant. The energy of space stays constant, as space is stretched out. The force grows with the distance. Two galaxies, for example, that are twice as far apart, as two others, have twice as much springy stuff between them. (That is, expanding energy). (Markus Chown, 1999).

Electric Load. The Universe has no overall net charge. It has the same number of protons and electrons. They have opposite electrical charges. The electron has a negative charge and the proton a positive charge. (J. D. Barrow, 1999). Thus, the Universe has zero net charge, it is balanced.

Energy of Universe. The Universe has zero total energy. Albert Einstein's formula, E = cm² means: energy = mass times the speed of light squared. Energy and mass are interchangeable. Energy comes in two forms: positive and negative. The total is exactly zero. The total amount of energy in the Universe is constant. The Universe was made from nothing. (J. D. Barrow, 1999).

Expanding Universe. The Universe expands close to the dividing line: between expansion and contraction. The expanding Universe moves all the time away from this critical dividing line. Hence, it must have begun with a speed, which was phantastically close to the dividing line at the beginning. The Universe expands evenly into all directions. Why? The Universe is like an inflating balloon. The specks of dust on it are its clusters of galaxies. The clusters of galaxies themselves do not expand, only the space between them. (J. D. Barrow, 1999).

 

Microwave background

Does the Universe rotate around its own axis? Does it have angular momentum? - The microwave background is like an ocean, through which the heavenly bodies are moving. The microwave spectrum tells us: The early history of the Universe was quiescent, not violent. Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary: (1977:947): Quiescent: "to become quiet, rest, being at rest, inactive, causing no trouble or symptoms."

The space satellite COBE has measured the intensity of the microwaves, coming from different directions. What has it found out? - If the Universe expands slightly faster in one direction, than in another, then the radiation will be slightly weaker, be lower, than that, coming from the other directions.

COBE measured these tiny wave fluctuations. They are among the smallest ones, which one has measured in astronomy: a few parts in 100 000. It shows us the universe, when it was 1,000,000 years old. Now it is about 12,000 million (or 12 billion) years old.

If the Universe rotates, it would be too slow, to notice it. But one is still able to find out, if it rotates around its own axis or not. There are more sensitive indicators of rotation. The microwave background: its radiation is homogenous and extremely isotropic (= the same). The fluctuations in temperature: 1 part in 100,000. It comes from the time, when the Universe was only a few 100 000 years old. The Universe has evolved from an earlier state, extremely close to homogeneity and isotropy. (J. D. Barrow, 1999).

The temperature radiation is the same in all directions. It has the same wave length. The whole Universe is bathed in this temperature of 2.728 K. When the Universe was 10 times smaller, it was 10 times hotter than now: 28.28 K. When the Universe was 1000 times smaller, its microwave radiation had a temperature of 3000 K. The microwave background radiation arose 300,000 years ago, after the Universe was born. (J. D. Barrow, 1999). The temperature of the microwave background is now 2.728°K. It is accurate within 0.1%. (M. Rowan-Robinson, 1999).

Cosmological Constant. How heavy is the cosmic vacuum, with its "virtual" particle pairs? The energy density of the cosmic vacuum is 10120. That is a 1 with 120 zeros. It is something, which forces the cosmological constant now in the Universe to be exactly zero. But no one knows, why. (Michael Rowan-Robinson, 1999).

Earth's rotation

The Earth's rotation causes the poles to be slightly flattened. Thus, the radius of the Earth at the equator is greater, than at the poles. The diameter of the Earth from Pole to Pole is 12,712 km. Its diameter at the equator is 12,755 km. Difference: 43 km. If the Universe rotates, its rotation would also cause the poles to be flattened at its rotational axis. Its diameter at its rotational axis will be then shorter, than its diameter, measured at its equator. Its geographical Poles would then be flattened.

Thus, the microwave background radiation should be hottest, when it comes from its Poles. And it should be coolest, when coming at right angles from its equator. But the radiation temperature within the visible Universe - up to its cosmic horizon -, is the same in all directions, with a precision of 1 part in 100 000. If the Universe does rotate, it will rotate very slowly. 1 trillion times slower, than it is expanding in size. The Universe might well have zero net rotation and angular momentum. (J. D. Barrow, 1999).

This proves: The Universe has the shape of a sphere, of a ball. It is rounder, than our planet Earth. Because it has no flattened Poles, like our planet Earth. This is proved by the microwave radiation, coming evenly from all directions. They have the same temperature. The (near) perfect sphere (ball) of our Universe is now about 12 billion years old. It has a radius of 12 billion light years, and a diameter of 24 billion light years. The circumference of our Universe is now about 75.4 billion light years. How has its spatial and temporal order arisen? How is it preserved?

Result

·         Our Universe has the shape of a ball. It is rounder, than our planet Earth, because it does not have any flattened geographic Poles. This, the scientists have proved now, by measuring the microwave background radiation, coming evenly to as from all sides.

·         Gravitation has forced the matter and energy of our Universe into the shape of a sphere. Gravitation has forced the matter and energy of our Universe into the shape of its gravitational field, into the shape of its lines of force and into the shape of its equipotential circles and concentric spherical shells (wave fronts).

·         The expanding force of the Universe makes sure, that the gravitational force does not cause the matter of the Universe to collapse under its own weight.

·         The attracting and expanding force of the Universe are perfectly balanced. It is balanced with a precision of 1 : 10123. But it does not reach 10124 (Krauss, L. M. 1999:41). The gravitational wave moves with the speed of light. The gravitational wave itself, however, cannot make the spatial and temporal order of the Universe. For that it is far too slow.

·         The gravitational field of the Universe, with its lines of force and equipotential circles and concentric spherical shells (wave fronts) is made and controlled by the circle-number pi. When using only 100 decimals of pi, the circumference of the circle will have an error of less than 10/1,000,000 mm. That is a circle, which is able to contain our present Universe several times.

·         The spatial and temporal order of our Universe is made and preserved with information, which is transmitted instantaneously. Information, moving on a cosmic scale with the speed of light, is far too slow. It is like a snail, crawling around in the garden.

·         Pi is not just a circle-number. It is also a cosmological constant. It exists independently of mankind. It has been there already, long before a human being appeared on our planet Earth. Man has only found and understood it a little. The circle-number pi makes the circles, discs, and spheres, from the atom to the galaxy and the whole spherical universe. It works instantaneously across billions of light years.

·         Only information, transmitted instantaneously, is able to form the lines of force and the concentric spherical shells of the Universe, with its radius of about 12 billion light years, its diameter of 24 billion light years, and its circumference of 75 billion light years. Only the circle-number pi is able to make and preserve its spatial and temporal order instantaneously. Information, transmitted with the speed of light, cannot do that, because it is too slow.