Together with the remains of the woolly mammoth, they have also found the bones, skeleton, and whole frozen body of the musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus). The musk-ox is an arctic animal, adapted to severe arctic cold. It is grazing now on arctic tundra and polar desert. Some proponents of the modern ice-age hypothesis now say: If such a large animal, like the musk-ox, is able to live now in the Far North, the woolly mammoth must surely also have been able to live up there. Thus, it must also have grazed up there on arctic tundra and polar desert, just like the muskox of today. Arctic animals prove an arctic climate! - Are the two kinds or types of muskoxen Praeovibos and Ovibos arctic animals? Do they prove an arctic climate? What have scientists found out about this?
Evelyn Crégut-Bonnoure, Museum Requiem, Avignon, France, says about the "Paleoecology of the Genera Praeovibos and Ovibos": "Until recently, fossil European Praeovibos and Ovibos had been encountered only in northern regions, inviting an identification with cold, even arctic climates. It was commonly agreed that, along with the reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) the woolly rhinoceros (Coelodonta antiquitatis) and the mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) the Pleistocene musk-x from quaternary deposits was a certain indicator of cold climates. Current studies on these species have tended to qualify this somewhat oversimplified model. In 1978, Poplin noted that neither Coelodonta nor Mammuthus belong to groups of animals especially well-suited by anatomy, to arctic regions." (1984:140).
"Recently, Guérin (1980) pointed out that the woolly rhinoceros in western Europe is associated only 6 times with musk-oxen, whereas the hippopotamus is more often associated with the rhinoceros than with the musk-ox... and it is wrong to place this species (C. antiquitatis) among the cold species. Only the ecological requirements of Ovibos and Rangifer, as genera adapted to periglacial conditions around the world, seem to be well established.
"As discussed above, Praeovibos and Ovibos occupied a large portion of western Europe, occasionally reaching some very southern regions: thus the southern limit of Praeovibos – already south of ca 43°N at the Caune de l’Arago in France – has now been extended to ca 37°N by the Spanish site at Venta Mecena. Likewise Ovibos, known from ca 45°N at Les Eyzies (France), is now seen at ca 42°N at Arbreda in Spain." - Crégut-Bonnoure, E. (1984:140).
Praeovibos
"For Praeovibos it seems as though: this muskox is not restricted to glacial periods since it has been noted in deposits dating from the Cromian interglacial (Zone 2) in the English Forest Bed series. Its presence in temperate climates is established by the Venta Micena and the Caune de l’Arago deposits. In the latter, Praeovibos occurs in 2 chronologically and stratigraphically different assemblages. In the lowest deposits there is a single individual in an assemblage dominated by Cervidae [deer] (cf. Praemegaceros, Cervus elaphus, Cervus cf. elaphoides) which indicates, as do palynological analyses (Renault-Miskovsky (1980)), a moist and temperate climate. Likewise, at Venta Micena there are no cold climate indicators associated with Praeovibos.
"The preferred biotope of Praeovibos is not necessarily a barren tundra. At the Caune de l’Arago, the upper stratigraphic levels contain the remains of 35 B.[ison] priscus. Pollen studies have quite precisely identified the associated vegetation. While numerous taxa represent cold or cool, wet conditions, others representing warmer and even Mediterranean climates are present and sometimes abundant (Pinus cf. maritima, Phyllerea, Quercus cf. ilex, Pistacia, Buxux, Juglans, Celtis etc. – Renault-Mikovsky 1981).
"Such an assemblage has no modern equivalent. The presence of small mammals today in arctic environments (Dicrostonyx torquatus) as well as areas with continental climate (Microtus gregalis, Citellus supercilliosus, Micromys minutus, Ochotona pusilla etc., Chaline 1981) reinforces the complexity of the meaning of these socalled ‘cold faunas’ distributed over landscapes for which there are no modern vegetational analogues, inhabiting biotopes whose constituent elements are largely unknown." - Crégut-Bonnoure, E. (1984:140, 141).
Ovibos
The musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus) is still living in the Far North. It is adapted to an arctic climate. Does this mean, then, that this muskox was also adapted to an arctic climate, when living together with the woolly mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros? Do the bones of the musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus) among the remains of the mammoth fauna, prove that it was adapted to an arctic climate?
Evelyne Crégut-Bonnoure: "In the case of Ovibos the great majority of the western European deposits are found between ca 48°N and ca 54°N. Kowarzik (1912), Gromova (1935), Soergel (1942) and Sher (1971) have noted that their distribution borders the southern limit of the Pleistocene glaciers during their maximum extension. However, Ovibos is occasionally present in southwest Europe, either in association with a temperate fauna or in association with ‘cold fauna’ in temperate paleoenvironments.
"Thus, Ovibos has been found from the Eemian interglacial (Zone 25) in alluvium in Crayford (England) in a context which was both wetter and warmer than present climatic conditions. Therefore it seems that Ovibos did not inhabit exclusively cold tundras during the European Pleistocene. For one thing, this musk-ox is very well adapted to steppe environments (Soergel, 1942) and even forest conditions (see above). Moreover, it must be remembered that tundra, in a strict sense, is a recent phenomenon and during the coldest intervals in the Pleistocene of all Europe it was colonized by a tundra-steppe biome having no modern analogue (Kowalski 1977). If today’s ‘arctic’ fauna was potential during the Pleistocene, its actualization was tied to a very recent emergence of the Eurasian tundra.
"Finally, the geographic distribution of Ovibos in western Europe extended south to include latitudes and environments which cannot reasonably be defined as arctic. If the few examples of southern deposits mentioned here are still the exception, they nevertheless point out the important adaptive potential of the Ovibovinae which has not always been tightly wedded to the tundra. In western Europe, Ovibovinae remain rare elements of the Pleistocene fauna. ... Likewise, certain southern advances into temperate paleoenvironments among the western populations underline the remarkable facility with which the Pleistocene musk-ox adapted to prevailing conditions. The use of ‘arctic’ to designate the biotope of these southern sites is clearly misleading." - Crégut-Bonnoure, E. (1984:142).
Shoulder Height and Body Weight
How much does the adult musk-ox bull in the Canadian Arctic weigh now, compared to his shoulder height? And how much has Central Alaska’s late Pleistocene musk-ox bull weighed? In what kind of a climate has it lived?
The average adult musk-ox bull, at least 2.9 year old, weighs 269 kg. Prof. R. D. Guthrie (1984:495, 498) found out: The Alaskan musk-ox (Ovibos) of the late Pleistocene averaged larger in body size, than today’s musk-ox. It was able to grow during the late Pleistocene so large, because the growing season of the plants, with quality forage, was longer, than it is now. The late Pleistocene musk-ox (Ovibos) of central and northern Eurasia and North America was adapted to zonal steppe and forest-steppe, not to soggy arctic tundra, like today. It was living then together with many different kinds of steppe animals. The musk-ox (Ovibos) was adapted to the zonal steppe and forest-steppe.
The late Pleistocene fossil material of the musk-ox (Ovibos) averages 11,58% larger, than that of the recent musk-ox (Guthrie, R. D. (1984: 500 Table 2). The late Pleistocene musk-ox of Central Alaska was then 34.769% heavier than the living musk-ox. Thus, the largest adult musk-ox bull on Central Alaska’s mammoth steppe would have weighed up to 550 kg. When will the musk-ox be able to grow so large and so heavy?
The one musk-ox bull in Vermont (caught as a calf in the Thelon Game Reserve) weighed 514.82 kg, when 4.25 years old. The other musk-ox bull at Vermont weighed then 657.7 kg. They were able, to grow so large, because they were especially well fed, in summer and in winter. Thus, they were able to keep on growing during all those months, the musk-ox is able to grow. Only during the winter months of growth dormancy, they were not able to grow. They did not have to depend on grazing in summer and winter, as the wild musk-ox does. They were able to eat as much, as they needed. They were able to nearly reach their full genetic growth potential, because they gave them throughout the year, in summer and winter, excellent nutrition (John J. Teal).
From this I do conclude: When the musk-ox was living in Central Alaska, together with the woolly mammoth, the growing season of the plants must have been up there then 7-9 months long. There has been then no permafrost in Central Alaska, no ice and snow, no arctic winter.
Musk-oxen (Ovibos moschatus) in late Pleistocene Central Europe. From: W. von Koenigswald (1983:201). The late Pleistocene musk-ox was adapted to the zonal steppe and forest-steppe, to a mild, temperate climate. It has not lived then on arctic tundra, like today.
Musk-ox Maintenance
The woolly mammoth and woolly rhinoceros have lived in the arctic tundra and polar desert, just like the musk-ox of today, some say. - Is that true? Is that scientific? Has that ever been proved quantitatively? Would the mammoth and rhinoceros have found enough to eat up there? Before we can answer these questions, we must first find out: How heavy is the average adult musk-ox, used in nutritional experiments? How much dry matter, digestible crude protein, and metabolizable [changeable] energy does the musk-ox need in winter, to maintain its body weight? How much crude protein (CP) and metabolizable energy (ME) does its food contain in winter? And how much of this crude protein, contained in its winter-food, does the musk-ox digest?
The following nutritional data about musk-ox nutrition, I have either taken directly or calculated from the findings of the following two workers: Robert G. White, Professor of Animal Nutrition at the University of Alaska, at Fairbanks, and co-workers (1984). And: J.Z. Adamczewski and R. K. Chaplin (1994) at the University of Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada. Digestible energy (DE) I have changed into metabolizable energy (ME) by x. 0.82 (ARC 1980).
The crude protein, contained in the food of the musk-ox in winter, is here 9.0% CP. The wet arctic tundra at the northern coast of Alaska has formerly been inhabited by the musk-x. And is now again inhabited by musk-oxen. The amount of aboveground dry matter and its crude protein content on the meadow tundra at Barrow, Alaska, lat.71°18´N, has been studied by F. Stuart III, Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska, at Fairbanks, in 1975. From the beginning of December to the end of May, the aboveground dry matter contains there about 9.0% CP.
According to Professor Robert G. White and co-workers (1984), musk-ox maintenance in winter is 38 g DM/kg 0.75 day, and 2.3908 g DCP/kg0.75 per day., and 101.529 kcal ME/kg0.75 per day.
According to J. Z. Adamsczewski and co-workers (1994), the average body weight of the tested musk-oxen was 220 kg. The musk-ox needed 39 g DM/kg0.75 day, 2.664 g DCP/kg0.75 day, and 105.351 kcal ME/kg0.75 day in winter to maintain its body weight. The musk-ox digested 75.9% of the crude protein, contained in its food in March. – Thus, the results from Fairbanks and Saskatoon are quite similar.
When calculating the food intake of the musk-ox in winter, at maintenance, I have used the following values: Average body weight of musk-ox, 220 kg; 39 g DM/kg0.75 day; 2.664 g DCP/kg0.75 day, and 105.351 kcal ME/kg0.75 day. The musk-oxen digested 75.9% of the crude protein (CP). Total aboveground dry matter in August on the wet meadow tundra near Barrow, Alaska, is 80.92 g DM/m².
In Africa, the elephant is still able to live, where 250 g DM/m² yr has grown, if it contains enough protein (marginal habitat). The elephant will starve to death, where only 200 g DM/m² has grown per year. This alone would be enough already, to prove that the elephant and the rhinoceros are not able to live in the arctic tundra,.
Digestible crude protein intake-deficit and death
Could the woolly mammoth (or any other kind of elephant) graze in the arctic tundra and polar desert, just like the muskox of today? How long would this elephant be able to live there, when grazing in the arctic tundra just as fast as 2, 3 and 4 adult musk-oxen?
Grazing as fast as 2 Musk-oxen
The 3000-kg adult non-lactating elephant is grazing here just as fast in the arctic tundra, as 2 adult musk-oxen, weighing 220 kg each. In other words. The tusker is taking in each day just as much digestible crude protein, as these two musk-oxen, when on maintenance. The mammoth is not able to graze there any faster, because there is too little fodder. The plant-cover is too sparse. The musk-ox needs 2.664 g DCP/kg0.75 day, to maintain its body weight in winter. And the adult elephant needs 3.28 g DCP/kg0.75 day (dry wt) for maintenance. The 3000-kg adult elephant will starve to death with a full stomach, due to lack of digestible crude protein, when this DCP-intake deficit has reached 144,470 g, or 4.8156% of its body weight.
Month: The table begins at the beginning of September and ends at the end of April. Actually, the plants in the Far North do begin to grow much later: at the beginning or middle of June, depending on the latitude.
DCPI/g/day: The 3,000 kg adult elephant is taking in 114 g digestible crude protein per day (dry weight): just as much as the two musk-oxen. The elephant is now able to graze in the arctic tundra any faster.
DCPI g/month: In September, the 3,000-kg adult elephant has taken in 3,427 g DCP. And in October 3,542 g DCP.
DCPI g/month needed: The 3,000-kg adult elephant needs 39,255 g DCP in September, with its 30 days, for maintenance. And in October, with its 31 days, 40,563 g DCP.
DCP deficit g/month: In September, the 3-ton elephant has taken in 35,828 g DCP too little, below its level of maintenance. And in October, 37,021 g DCP too little. After 4 months, around the 2nd of January, the 3-ton adult elephant has reached its critical intake-deficit of 123,845 g DCP (dry wt). That is 4.128% of its body weight. Then the tusker starves to death with a full stomach, due to lack of protein.
Grazing as fast as 3 Musk-oxen
When grazing in the arctic tundra from the beginning of September as fast as 3 musk-oxen, weighing 220 kg each, the 3,000-kg adult elephant will starve to death after nearly 5 months: around the 21st of January, due to lack of digestible crude protein. Then this elephant will have reached its critical DCP-intake-deficit of 4.128% of its body weight, namely 123 845 g DCP (dry wt).
Grazing as fast as 4 Musk-oxen
When grazing from the beginning of September as fast as 4 musk-oxen, the 3,000 kg adult elephant will starve to death, due to lack of digestible crude protein, after nearly 6 months. Then it will have reached its critical DCP-intake-deficit of 4.128% of its body weight or 123,845 g. – This proves quantitatively that the mammoth is not able to graze on the arctic tundra, just like the musk-ox of today. There is too little food.
Metabolizable Energy-Intake-Deficit and Death
Would the 3,000-kg elephant find enough metabolizable energy, when grazing on the arctic tundra, just like the musk-ox of today? The adult musk-ox needs 105 kcal ME/kg0.75 day in winter for maintenance. And the adult elephant needs 144 kcal ME/kg0.75 day for maintenance. The 3,000-kg adult elephant will starve to death, when its intake-deficit of metabolizable energy (ME) has reached 5,559,106 kcal. That is a ME-intake-deficit of 1,283.858 kg, or 42.795% of its body weight (dry wt), (at 4.33 kcal/g).
Grazing as fast as 2 Musk-oxen
The 3,000-kg adult elephant is grazing here since the beginning of September on the arctic tundra. The elephant is grazing as fast as 2 adult musk-oxen, weighing 220 kg each. That is: The tusker is taking in here just as much metabolizable energy. The 3-ton elephant is taking in then 11,996 kcal ME/day. And during the whole September, he is taking in 359,880 kcal ME. In September the elephant needs 1,751,155 kcal ME for maintenance. After 4 months, around the 27th December, the 3-ton elephant has reached its deadly intake-deficit of 5,559,106 kcal ME. That is 42.795% of its body weight. Then the elephant will starve to death with a full stomach, due to lack of metabolizable energy (ME).
Grazing as fast as 3 Musk-oxen
When grazing as fast as 3 adult musk-oxen, weighing 220 kg each, the 3-ton elephant will starve to death around the 16th of January, due to lack of metabolizable energy. The elephant is not able to graze in the arctic tundra any faster, because there is too little fodder. – When taking in as much metabolizable energy as 4 musk-oxen, the tusker will starve to death around the 8th of February. – And when grazing on the arctic tundra as fast as 5 adult musk-oxen, the giant will die around the 14th of March, due to lack of metabolizable energy.
Musk-ox and elephant are also feeding quite differently. The musk-ox, grazing on the sedge meadow on the lowland of the arctic tundra, is only biting off the sedges, which have grown during the summer. When browsing on the low willow shrubs, the musk-ox is only biting off the tender leaves and twigs at the end of the branches. In this way, this "sheep-ox" is preserving the fragile arctic plant-cover.
The elephant behaves more like a "bulldozer", when feeding. During the wet season, the elephant likes to graze on the grassland. Because the grasses are then fresh and green, high in protein and low in fiber. He pulls out there the plants with their roots. During the dry season, the grass is dry and brown, high in fiber and low in protein. The elephant is not living then on the short grassland.
In the long grassland, the elephant will only graze during the dry season, if there are still enough fresh green stalks of grasses left between the many dry, brown grasses. These green stalks he will pick out. There might still be much grass left on the grassland during the dry season. These grasses may be one or two meters high. So there still seems to be much food left. But this appearance is misleading. What might be food to the human observer, is not food to the elephant and its companions (Sinclair, A.R.E.).
It is dead food. It contains too many fibers and too little protein. The elephant and the other animals there are not able to digest it. If forced to live on this dead dry grass (because nothing else is left), the elephant will starve to death with a full stomach. – Why? Because the microflora in its digestive tract is not able, to live anymore on this "dead" food, high in fiber and low in protein. The microflora in its digestive tract will die off. And the food, the elephant is eating, it is not able to digest anymore. The tusker will starve then with a full stomach. It will starve to death, when reaching its critical intake deficit of digestible crude protein (DCP) and metabolizable energy (ME).
During the dry season, the elephant stays in the forest, feeding on the trees and shrubs. Because the leaves and twigs at the end of the branches do contain then more protein, than the dry, brown grass on the open grassland. When browsing, the elephant is tearing off the bark from the tree trunks. It breaks off the larger branches. And it pushes over whole trees, like a bulldozer. When only few in numbers, the elephant is breaking clearings into the forest, keeping the open grassland and the forest in a balance. When there are too many elephants, the tusker will destroy the forest and the grassland.
This clearly proves that neither the woolly mammoth, nor any other kind of elephant is able to live in an arctic climate. The elephant is not able to graze in the Far North, just like the muskox of today, because there is too little food. In an arctic climate, the arctic plant-cover would not be able to withstand the elephant’s rough type of feeding. The tusker would ruin the fragile arctic plant-cover for years.