In what kind of a climate has the woolly mammoth lived in northern Siberia? In what kind of a climate, on what kind of a plant-cover has it grazed up there? What have scientists found out now about this?
Some of the world’s leading experts now do believe: The woolly-mammoth – also the newly discovered Jarkov Mammoth and Hook Mammoth on Taimyr Peninsula – have lived in northern Siberia during the height of the Last Ice Age. It was then very cold and very dry up there, much colder and drier than now. Near the present arctic coast of Northeast Siberia, the mean July air temperature has been during the Late Pleistocene only 0-4°C. And annual precipitation was only 100-200 mm. In winter the thermometer may have dropped up there to –100°C.
Is that true? Has that been proved now scientifically? What does the azonal steppe on the south-facing slopes now show us? Which kinds of beetles are living now in this azonal dry steppe? And what kinds of beetles have lived up there during the time of the woolly-mammoth? What do they tell us about the climate and the plant-cover: now and in the past?
A. V. Alfimov and D. I. Berman are at the Institute of Biological Problems of the North, in Magadan, Russia. That is in Russia’s Far East, at the Sea of Okhotsk. They report about their findings in Quaternary-Reviews 20 (2001) 127-134, under the title, “Beringian Climate during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene”:
“Here we demonstrate the possible use of the fossil remains of beetles in the weevil genus Stephanocleonus for Late Pleistocene and Holocene climate reconstruction. … Modern ecological data, which were collected for these beetles in northeastern Yakutia, shows, that they feed on only a few species of plants and occupy habitats, with a relatively narrow range of environmental conditions.” (2001:127).
What are the ecological and thermal requirements of the beetle Stephanocleounus?
Alfimov and Berman: “The genus Stephanuscleonus includes more than 130 species. Most of these species dwell in the steppe and mountain-steppe regions of Central Asia, Kazakhstan, Siberia, the Trans-Baikal region, and Mongolia (Ter-Minassian, 1988). Some species of this genus are known from North America, including the species discussed here (Ter-Minassian, 1979). At present, the main-range of three weevil species – Stephanocleonus eruditus Fst., S. fossulatus F. W. and S. foveifrons Chevr., are the mountain-steppe regions of southern Siberia and Central Asia.
“Beyond this range, these species dwell on steppe biotopes in the Upper Indigirka and Yana valleys of northeastern Siberia, in the latitudinal range of 64-67. In this region they live together with some species of other weevil genera, ground beetles, leaf-beetles, leaf-hoppers, etc. They also inhabit steppe and mountain-steppe landscapes. Actually, northeast Asia is separated from the main part of these weevils’ ranges by a huge gap. ”(2001:127, 128).
Comment: The weevil is a small beetle. Its head is long and narrow. It ends in a long, narrow, trunk-like mouth. That is, why it is also known as the “trunk-beetle”.
“The main steppe communities in Chukotka at the upper reaches of the Yana, Indigirka, and Kolyma rivers are located on south-facing-bluffs in main river valleys. These biotopes rarely exceed a few hectares in area. Steppe patches are exotic for northeastern Asia, because they exist in the surrounding vegetation of northern taiga and even tundra. … These steppe habitats are the relics of the Pleistocene environment. Despite the tiny size of steppe biotopes, steppe communities are very resistant to outside impacts. … The main range of these species is zonal steppe and mountain steppe of southern Siberia and Central Asia. As in the case of the weevils, Northeastern Asia is separated from the main ranges of these plants by a huge gap.
“Three weevil species – Stephanocleonus eruditus, S fossulatus, and S. foveifrons, play important roles in the insect fauna of relic steppe biotopes. The first two species dominate the invertebrate fauna of steppe biotopes; which implies that they thrive in this type of environment; the latter one is relatively rare there. This is evident from investigations that were conducted on five plots. With different plant communities within the steppe environment on the south facing bluff in the valley of the Nera river (right tributary of Indigirka, 30 km upstream from their confluence). We caught a total of 707 weevils in pitfalls from June to September. Of these, 445 (about 63%) were S. fossulatus and 120 (about 16%) were S. eruditus (Berman and Mordkovich, 1979).” Alfimov and Berman (2001:128)
“Like all other beetles in the tribe Cleonini, the larvae of Stephanocleonus species develop on plant roots. Shrub wormwood (Artemisia gmelini) is the obvious host plant for the larvae of S. fossulatus. This is a rather large-sized Artemisia species (height about 50-60 cm). Stands of this species usually look like groups of several shrubs. Artemisia gmelini has a huge range. It includes Mongolia, northern China, and the southern parts of western and eastern Siberia. In the Indigirka and Yana drainage, there are several separate south-facing bluffs with A. gmelini communities.
“We conclude that S. fossulatus and A. gmelini are very closely related. On the south-facing bluff, which we have described above, 97% of S fossulatus (432 ex.) we have caught on plots with A. gmelini, and 12 specimen we found on plots with another wormwood species – A. pubescens. This weevil was completely absent on the three other plots without wormwood. …
“Larvae of S. fossulatus we have found on the roots of lone shrubs and on the roots of groups of shrubs, but only within the steppe biotopes. Rarely we have found some shrubs of A. gmelini beyond the steppe communities. But the weevils, their larvae, and their exoskeletal remains never have been found there. Stephanocleonus fossulaltus was absent even within the shallow depressions with meadow-steppe vegetation that dissect the steppe bluffs. Thus, in the Indigirka headwater, S. fossulatus is an obvious stenobiont of (= adapted to) relic steppe biotopes.” Alfimov and Berman (2001:128).
Locations of weather stations (numbers 1 – 8) and places, where they have found the remains of the beetle Stephanocleonus, marked by asterisks. The numbers 1 and 2 at the head waters of the Indigirka and Kolyma River show, where this beetle is still living today on steep south-facing bluffs. From: A. V. Alfimov and D. I. Berman, “Beringian climate during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene” in Quarternary Reviews 20 (2001:128) Fig. 1
A weevil or snout beetle. From: The New Encyclopaedia Britannica Vo. 21 (1997:714)
1200° 10°C annual temperature sum. In N.E. Siberia, at 70°North now only 200-300°.
250-500 mm potential evapotranspiration.
In N.E. Siberia at 70°N, now only about 125 mm.
0-40 kcal.cm² net radiation at earth’s surface. In N.E. Siberia at 70°N now only 10-20 kcal.cm².
16°C mean July air temperature.
In N.E. Siberia at 70°N now only 4-10°C.
From Paul E. Lydolf, Climates of the Soviet Union (1977) Fig. 8-57; 9-47, 8-17, 8-32.
Only in such a climate, zonal steppe and forest-steppe were able to grow also in northeastern Siberia. And only in such a climate the beetle Stephanocleonus fossulatus was able to live everywhere on zonal steppe and forest-steppe, like now in southern Siberia, and not only on a few south-facing slopes. In an arctic climate this is not possible.
Alfimov and Berman: “The Pleistocene remains of these weevils have been discovered throughout northeast Asia. Stephanocleonus fossulatus and S. eruditus were common throughout the immense area from the Lena River to the Anadyr River; fossil remains of S. fovifrons have been found in the lower reaches of the Kolyma and the Indigirka and on Ayon Island (Kiselev, 1981). Based on these fossil remains, we argue that during Pleistocene, there were more true steppe species of weevils (from southern Siberia) in the northern coastal lowland of Asiatic Beringia, than that are found there today on relic steppe biotopes throughout all of northeast Asia. During the Pleistocene there were at least 10 species of Stephanocleonus (5 of them are not previously recognized), and two of them (Stephanocleonus incertus T. M. and S. cf. anceps Chevr.) have not yet been found.” (2001:128).
The steppe-beetle Stephanocleonus eruditus Faust. From: S. V. Kiselev, Beetles in North-East Siberia During the Late Cenozoic, Nauka Press, Moscow 1981 p. 34 Fig. 6 (in Russian). Cross hatching (west of Lake Baikal): there this beetle is living now in southeastern Siberia on zonal steppe and forest-steppe. Empty circle: this beetle is living there now on steep south-facing bluffs on azonal dry steppe at the headwaters of the Indigirka River. Circles filled with a black triangle: there they have found the remains of this beetle in Late Pleistocene sediments, from the time of the woolly mammoth.
This beetle is living now on the steppe and forest-steppe of Southern Siberia, west of Lake Baikal, up to about 54° North. Further northeast, at the headwaters of the Indigirka River (marked on map by empty circle), this beetle is living now on south-facing bluffs on azonal dry steppe. This insect is adapted to the steppe, to steppe-plants. It is not able, to live anywhere else. This means: this steppe beetle is living now some 1820 km further south in latitude. That is, from the northern limit of its presents range on zonal steppe and forest-steppe.
In the Late Pleistocene, during the time of the woolly mammoth, this insect has lived in northeastern Siberia, from the Lena River in the West to the Anadyr River in the East, at least up to 70° North. It has lived there everywhere on zonal steppe, also on the flat ground, and not only on a few south-facing bluffs. During the time of the woolly mammoth, northern Siberia was covered by zonal steppe and forest-steppe. This is also the large herds of steppe-bison, steppe-horses, Asiatic asses, saiga-antelopes, and in Yukon/Alaska also two kinds of large camels prove, which have lived up there during the time of the woolly mammoth.
The climate, in which the steppe-beetle Sephanocleonus eruditus Faust is living now at the northern limit of its zonal range (on steppe and forest-steppe), west of Lake Baikal:
27 kcal.cm² net radiation at earth’s surface per year.
450 mm potential evapotranspiration per year
16°C mean July air temperature.
1200° 10°C temperature sum per year.
From Paul E. Lydolf (1977) Figs. 7-17; 9-48; 8-32; 8-57.
Terms explained: SDD: annual temperature sum at surface of ground: up to 2500°C. And at a depth of 5 cm 2400°.
TDD = annual sum of daily air temperature above 0°C.
“The crioaridic (= cold, dry ) soils of relic steppe biotopes on the south-facing bluffs are very dry. The vegetation covers 35-45% of the soil surface. And it thaws up to 2.5-3.0 m deep. The main characteristics of the temperature regime of the soil on the weevil biotopes in the Indigirka headwaters on the surface and at a depth of 5 cm are as follows:
“SDD up to 2500°C and 2400°C, respectively. Mean July temperature up to 22-24°C and 20°C, respectively. And maximum temperatures up to 58-62°C and 40-42°C, respectively (Berman and Alfimov, 1993). The temperature characteristics are remarkably high for a subarctic region.
“The temperature characteristics of relic steppe soils are comparable to that of a typical thin larch forest. For example, the difference in SDD between the south-facing bluffs and other regional environments in northeastern Siberia is as much as 2.5-fold on the surface and 3.6-fold at a depth of 5 cm. The characteristic soil temperature regime on south-facing bluffs is very similar to the regime, which is found in the mountain-steppes of southern Siberia and Central Asia. The high soil temperatures are made possible only, because of the prevalence of cloudless skies, high atmospheric transparency and dryness, and rare precipitation, in short, these soil temperatures develop under high continental climatic conditions.” Berman and Alfimov (2001:129 Fig. 2)..
“Because of the lower sea-level in the Late Pleistocene, the lower reaches of the Kolyma and the Indigirka rivers and Ayon Island were separated from the Arctic Ocean by at least 600-800 km. It was probably covered by ice throughout the year. (Borisov, 1970; Hopkins, 1982). We infer, that the most important difference between Late Pleistocene and recent climates in this region was increased continentality, not decreased annual temperatures. This increased continentality arose not only from the lower sea-level, but also, because much of the fresh water in this region was frozen in glaciers and ground-ice. ” (2001:129, 130).
The steppe-beetle Stephanocleonus fossulaltus Faust. From: S. V. Kiselev, Beetles in North-East Siberia During the Late Cenozoic, Nauka Press, Moscow 1981:34) Fig. 6 (in Russian). Cross hatching (west of Lake Baikal): where this beetle is living now in southeastern Siberia on zonal steppe and forest-steppe. Empty circle: where this beetle is living now on south-facing bluffs on azonal dry steppe at the headwaters of the Indigirka River. Circles filled with black triangles: where they have found the remains of this beetle in Late Pleistocene sediments, from the time of the woolly mammoth.
This beetle is living now on the steppe and forest-steppe of Southern Siberia, west of Lake Baikal, up to about 54° North. Further northeast, at the headwaters of the Indigirka River (marked on map by empty circle), this beetle is living now on south-facing bluffs on azonal dry steppe. This insect is adapted to the steppe, to steppe-plants. It is not able, to live anywhere else. This means: this steppe beetle is living now some 1820 km further south in latitude. That is, from the northern limit of its present range on zonal steppe and forest-steppe.
In the Late Pleistocene, during the time of the woolly mammoth, this insect has lived in northeastern Siberia, from the Lena River in the West to the Anadyr River in the East, at least up to 70°North. It has lived up there everywhere on zonal steppe and forest-steppe, and not only on a few steep south-facing bluffs. During the time of the woolly mammoth, northern Siberia was covered by zonal steppe and forest-steppe. This, also the large herds of steppe-bison, steppe-horses, Asiatic asses, saiga antelopes, and in Yukon/Alaska two kinds of large camels do prove, which have lived up there during the time of the woolly mammoth.
The steppe-beetle Stephanocleonus foveifrons Chevr. From: S. V. Kiselev, Beetles in North-East Siberia During the Late Cenozoic, Nauka Press, Moscow (1981:33) Fig. 5. Where it is living now on zonal steppe and forest-steppe in southern Siberia, east and west of Lake Baikal. And where it is living now further northeast on south-facing bluffs, on azonal dry steppe (headwaters of Yana and Indigirka River). And where it has lived in the Late Pleistocene, during the time of the woolly mammoth in northeastern Siberia, up to at least Ayon Island (70° North).
The steppe-beetle Coniocleonus ferrugineus Fahr. From: S. V. Kiselev, Beetles in North-East Siberia During the Late Cenozoic, Nauka Press, Moscow (1961:31) Fig. 4 (in Russian). Where this beetle is living now in southeastern Siberia (cross-hatching). And where it is living now on azonal dry steppe on south-facing bluffs in northern Siberia, from West to East: on southern Taimyr Peninsula, near Khatanga. At the mouth of the Lena River; at the headwaters of the Yana and Indigirka River (empty circle). And where it has lived in the Late Pleistocene in northeastern Siberia, from the mouth of the Indigirka River to Ayon Island at the present Arctic Coast, at 70° North.
The steppe-beetle Phyllobius crassus Motsch. From: S.V. Kiselev, Beetles in North-East Siberia During the Late Cenozoic, Nauka Press, Moscow (1981:29) Fig. 3 (in Russian). Where this steppe-beetle is living today on zonal steppe and forest-steppe in southeastern Siberia (around Lake Baikal) (cross-hatching). Where it is living now on azonal dry steppe on steep south-facing slopes at headwater of Indigirka River and at Vilyuy River, western tributary of Lena River, northwest of Yakutsk (empty circle). And where Phyllobius crassus Motsch. has lived in the Late Pleistocene, during the time of the woolly mammoth: in northeastern Siberia, from the lower Indigirka in the West to Ayon Island, at the Arctic Coast in the East (at 70°N). Its remains they have also found further southwest, near where the Aldan River is flowing into the Lena River, north of Yakusk.
“Most workers (Budiko et al., 1992; Velichko, 1993) based on general circulation models of the atmosphere, suppose, that annual precipitation in Northeast Asia during the Late Pleistocene, was 100-200 mm (or 30-60%) less, than what it is at present. In other words: annual precipitation in the lower reaches of the Kolyma and the Indigirka at 18-20 ka (= 18,000-20,000 years ago, at height of Last Ice Age) was very close to the modern precipitation of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Modern measurements of precipitation in the driest subarctic regions (e.g. Yukon and the Indigirka headwaters) provide minimum monthly relative humidity readings of about 30-40%. Those values are close to those, which are typical for dry steppe or semi-desert environments.” (2001:131).
“Under this very continental climate, the temperature sums for the soil surface in the warmest biotopes are up to 2.0-2.2 times those of the air. If the Late Pleistocene weevil distribution in the lower reaches of the Kolyma and Indigirka Rivers and Ayon Island were restricted to the south-facing bluffs, SDD of about 2500°C (the level necessary for these beetles to breed) would have accumulated there only, if TDD were at least 1000°C.
“Under the modern continental climate in the inner parts of northeast Asia, such an annual sum of daily temperatures above 0°C is able to accumulate, when the mean July temperatures are about 10-12°C (Reference-Book-of-USSR-Climate, 1967). Accordingly, under continental climate conditions, the mean July temperature during the Late Pleistocene in the lower reaches of the Kolyma and Indigirka Rivers (= near the present Arctic Coast) and Ayon Island (-at the present Arctic Coast-) could not have been less than 10-11°C.
“To support weevil populations on dry terraces, were SDD is 15-18% less than on south-facing-slopes (Alfimov, 1985), we find, that the mean July air temperature at 18-20 ka must have been 12-13°C, or only 1-2°C less, than that found today in the headwaters of these rivers.
“In other words, at 18-20 ka (= 18,000-20,000 years ago), air temperatures in the lower reaches of the Kolyma and Indigirka rivers and on Ayon Island (at the present Arctic Coast) must have been about two times higher than today. This reconstruction differs sharply from the majority of the Late Pleistocene climate reconstructions. Almost all workers (Avenarius et al., 1978; Budiko et al, 1992; Velichko, 1993), notwithstanding the high degree of continentality, estimate that the mean July temperatures along the modern coast of the Arctic Ocean were only 0-4°C during the Late Pleistocene.
“However, based on quantitative spore-pollen analyses, Klimanov (1995) argues that the July temperatures on the modern Arctic coast west of Pevek (= east of Ayon Island) at 11-12 ka, and most probably during the period of the last glaciation, were 2-6°C higher than today, due to greater continentality.” (2001:131).
“Low soil water content in the weevil biotopes is another argument in favour of very continental climate, with warm summers in the Late Pleistocene. The soils of south-facing bluffs in the Indigirka headwater region currently have a water content of 5-6% (Alfimov and Berman, 1992). Thus, we suggest that the water content of the Pleistocene weevil biotopes was at a similar level. Such a dry soil does not form in tundra landscapes. At present, under a continental climate (K = 1.4) in the driest tundra biotope of the Amguema basin, soil moisture is not less than 9-10% (Alfimov and Mikhailov, 1993).
“The latest discovery of fossil remains of the genus Stephanocleonus on the Arctic coast (Ayon Island) deserves special mention. These fossils were dated 1290 ± 200 year BP (Kiselev, 1981). Assuming that the date is correct, the climate on Ayon Island throughout the periglacial period until 1-1.5 ka has been highly continental. And summer conditions were not much different from the modern ones in the Indigirka headwaters.
“The long-term existence of Stephanocleonus in northeast Asia confirms a theory of extreme climatic stability in this region, in comparison with other regions of Eurasia (Velichko et al, 1987; Boyarskaya, 1989). Alternatively, we suggest that the long-term existence of Stephanocleonus weevils in northeast Asia results from the persistence of enough suitable microhabitats, despite global changes. ” (2001:131).
The steppe-beetle Phyllobius crassus Motsch.-From S. V. Kiselev, Beetles in North-East Siberia-During the Late Cenozoic, Nauka-Press, Moscow (1981:29) Fig. 3 (In Russian). Where this steppe-beetle is living today on zonal steppe and forest-steppe in southeastern Siberia (around Lake Baikal) (cross-hatching). Where it is living now on azonal dry steppe on south-facing slopes at headwater of Indigirka River and at Vilyuy River, western tributary of Lena River, northwest of Yakutsk (empty circle). And where Phyllobius crassus Motsch. has lived in the Late Pleistocene, during the time of the woolly-mammoth: in northeastern Siberia, from the lower Indigirka in the West to Ayon Island, at the Arctic coast in the East (at 70°N). Its remains they have also found further southwest, near where the Aldan is flowing into the Lena River, north of Yakutsk.
“High humidity, combined with high temperatures, marked the end of the wide distribution of steppe and tundra-steppe environments in northeast Asia. Thus, steppe species could only survive in relict habitats in the most continental regions of the Indigirka and the Yana River headwaters. All the above conclusions apply in full measure only to the plains regions west of Chaun Bay (= east of Ayon Island at 170°E). The climate of Central Beringia, especially the Bering Land Bridge, was probably different, in spite of it’s being 1500 km wide during the Last Glacial Maximum.
“Faunal analysis revealed the Holarctic composition of the various groups of terrestrial invertebrates. Their modern distribution in northeast Asia and northwestern North America showed that steppe species could not exist on the Bering Land Bridge during the Pleistocene cold periods (Berman and Alfimov, 1997). By ‘steppe species’ we mean species that currently live in the zonal and mountain steppe environments of southern Siberia, Mongolia, and Kazakhstan, as well as in the relict steppe biotopes of northeastern Yakutia. These are regions, where SDD of the soil surface is above 2500°C. … In other words, the distinction between western and eastern Beringia for July air temperature was 4-5°C, or about 30%, but for SDD of the warmest biotopes it was 1000°C or 50°C (Figs. 1a and b).” A. V. Alfimov and D. I. Berman (2001:132)
“The fossil remains of Stephanocleonus weevils provide incontrovertible evidence for steppe environments, because these weevils cannot exist anywhere else. Furthermore, the exoskeletal remains of these weevils are fragile and therefore cannot endure reworking in sediments. This minimizes taphonomic (= burial) problems with these fossils. We stress that the strict restriction of these weevils to steppe habitats allows us, to use them as reliable proxy data for microclimatic conditions. They serve as paleo-thermometers and paleo-hydrometers. ... This reconstruction suggests that the western Beringian climate had sufficiently warm temperatures and summer soil temperatures, to support not only tundra-steppe, but also steppe habitats. In central Beringia, the soil temperatures were similar to those, which are found in typical hypoarctic tundra.” Alfimov, A. V. and D. I. Berman (2001:133).
Distribution of mean July air temperature (A1, recent; A2, 18,000-20,000 years ago). From: A. V. Alfimov and D. I. Berman, “Beringian climate during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene” in Quaternary Science Reviews 29 (2001) page 130 Fig. 2. Asteriks indicate, where they have found Stephanocleonus fossil remains discussed in Kiselev (1981).
18,000 – 20,000 years ago, according to the geologist’s time-scale, is at the height of the Last Ice Age. This is supposed to have been the coldest part of the whole Late Pleistocene. The steppe-beetles, which have lived then up there, together with the woolly mammoth, do tell us a different story. During the time, when it was supposed to have been the coldest in northeastern Siberia, it has actually been up there much warmer than today! These two maps show us: Left map: Today, the Arctic coast has a mean July air temperature of 8 - 10°C. Only a small spot, at the upper Anadyr River, near the eastern tip of Siberia, has now 10°C. Right map: During the peak of the Last Ice Age the 12°C July isotherm went then much further north, even onto the now submerged continental shelf. 12°C July air temperature is at or near the northern treeline.
Distribution of soil temperatures within the territory of Asiatic Beringia. B1 (left map): SDD of the south-facing bluffs, in our time. B2 (right map) SDD of the south-facing bluffs 18,0000 – 20,000 years ago. At the height of the Last Ice Age. From: A. V. Alfimov and D. I. Berman, “Beringian climate during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene” in Quarternary Science Reviews 20n(2001) p. 130 Fig. 2. Asterisks indicate, there they have found remains of Stephanocleonus fossils discussed in Kiselev (1981).
SDD means the annual temperature sum with days above 0°C at the surface of the ground. The weevil beetle is only able to breed at the temperature sum above 0°C of 2500°C, and if the annual sum of daily air temperature above 0°C is above 1000°C (TDD). These two maps do show us: 18,000 – 20,000 years ago, at the height of the Last Ice Age, northeastern Siberia has been twice as warm, than it is now, not colder! Today the Arctic coast of northeastern Siberia has a SDD temperature of less than 1000°C. – During the height of the Last Ice Age it has been more than 2000°C SDD.
A weevil, also known as a snout beetle. It has now turned its trunk-like snout downward. From: Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary (1977:1328)
During the height of the Last Glaciation, about 18,000-20,000 years ago, according to the geologist’s time-scale, a warm zonal steppe was growing in northeastern Siberia. On the south-facing slopes dry steppe was growing. During the height of the Last Glaciation the mean July air temperature was at least 10-11°C. The annual sum of the daily temperature above 0°C (SDD) at the surface of the soil, was up to 2500°C. In this dry steppe, different species of the weevil Stephanocleonus were living during the height of the Last Glaciation, 18-20 ka ago: S fossulatus, S. eruditus.
Artemisia gmelini is a shrub wormwood, 50-60 cm high. It is also growing in Mongolia, northern China, and in the southern parts of western and eastern Siberia.
During the Late Pleistocene, the weevils (“trunk-beetles”) were found throughout northeast Asia. S, fossulatus and S. eruditus were living then from the Lena River in the West to the Anadir River in the East. S. fovifrons was living in the lower part of the Kolyma and Indigirka Rivers (near the present Arctic coast), and on Ayon Island (at the present Arctic coast). During the Pleistocene, there were more true steppe-species of weevils (from southern Siberia) living in the northern coastal lowland of northeastern Siberia than now. Now they are only living far to the south, at the headwaters of the Yana and Indigirka River on dry-south-facing slopes, where small patches of azonal dry steppe are growing.
The south-facing slopes, where the relict steppe is growing now, are very dry. They contain only 5-6 percent water. The driest tundra up there contains 9-10% water. The vegetation on the dry, south-facing slopes covers only 35-45% of the soil surface. The surface of these south-facing slopes thaws in summer 2.5-3.0 m deep. The frozen soil beneath the arctic tundra on the flat ground only about 55 cm in summer. The frozen soil on the south-facing slope thaws in summer about 5 times deeper than on the flat ground. This means: Zonal steppe was only able to grow up there also on the flat ground, when the summer up there was about 5 times hotter than now, so that this flat ground would also be able to thaw in summer 2.5-3.0 m deep, instead of only about 55 cm, like now in the arctic tundra.
The temperature now on the south-facing slopes: The mean July temperature on the soil surface is there up to 22-24°C. And at a depth of 5 cm it is 20°C. The mean July air temperature does not rise above 12-14°C. And the mean annual sum of the daily air temperature above 0°C is about 1200-1400°C (TDD). The July temperature on the surface of the south-facing slope (SDD) in northeastern Siberia is 2.5 times higher, than on the flat ground. And at a depth of 5 cm below the surface, the temperature is 3.6 times higher, than on the flat ground.
This means: The dry steppe, with its weevils (trunk-beetles) would only be able to grow in NE Siberia also on the flat ground, if the July temperature were 2.5 times higher than on the flat ground. How calculated: 23 (22-24)°C x 2.5 = 57.5°C July temperature at the soil surface (SDD).
At the peak of the Last Glaciation (18-20 ka), NE Siberia, east of the Lena River, and up to the present Arctic coast, had to have then a surface temperature sum above 0°C of 2400-2500°C (SDD) and a mean annual air temperature sum above 0°C of 1100-1200°C (TDD). The mean July temperature up there, up to the present Arctic Coast, had to be then at least 10-11°C.
The Arctic coast lay then about 600-800 km further north. And the Arctic Ocean was probably frozen over completely all year round. Annual precipitation in N.E. Siberia during the Late Pleistocene was about 100-200 mm (or an average 150 mm, or 30-60% less than now. The plant-cover, which was growing then up there, was a dry-steppe or semi-desert. How much fodder would have then been able to grow up there in an arctic climate? Would the mammoth have found then enough to eat up there?
I have worked out now a new type of plant-production-chart. It is based on three values: (1) Mean annual precipitation (mm) (2) Mean annual aboveground plant-production (gDM/m²). I have combined the two into gDM.m²/mm precipitation per year. (3) Mean annual net-radiation at the earth’s-surface, in kcal.cm².year.
The lowland of northeastern Yakutia lies now near the 10-15 kcal.cm².year line. According to my new plant-production chart, 15 kcal.cm² net radiation at the earth’s-surface produces, with 150 mm precipitation per year, only about 22.57 g DM/m². And at 10 kcal.cm² net radiation at the earth’s-surface, only about 15.7 g DM/m². It is rather doubtful, if even the 100-kg reindeer would have be able to find there enough to eat.
According to my other plant-production chart, which I have worked out, the 3000-kg mammoth needs at least 367 g DM/m². This means: At least 367 g DM/m² had to grow up-there per year, so that this 3000-kg mammoth would find enough to eat, as a lower limit. And the 5000-kg mammoth would only be able to live then up there, if at least 569 g DM/m² were growing there. That is, if this fodder contained enough protein during the long arctic winter. – How much precipitation would we have needed then up there per year in this arctic climate, to produce this amount of fodder?
At an annual net-radiation of 10 kcal.cm², 367g DM/m² would be able to grow up there, if there were an annual precipitation of 3495 mm! And at 15 kcal.cm² net-radiation, there would have to be then an annual precipitation of 2438 mm!
And the 596 g DM/m² would only be able to grow now up there, at a net-radiation of 15 kcal.cm², if there were 3869 mm precipitation per year. And at 10 kcal.cm² net-radiation, we would need 5676 mm annual precipitation! In an arctic climate this is not possible.
The Late Pleistocene weevil beetles on the lower (northern) part of the Kolyma and Indigirka rivers and on Ayon Island (at the arctic coast) were living on south-facing bluffs. These beetles needed then a soil surface temperature of 2500°C (SDD) and an air temperature of at least 1000°C (TDD) temperature sum above 0°C. That is, 1100-1200°C air temperature sum above 0°C. The soil-surface temperature was up to 2.0-2.2 times (or an average 2.1 times) larger, than the air temperature.
Now we need there a man July air temperature of 10-12°C, to reach 1000°C (air temperature sum above 0°C, TDD). 1000°C TDD x 2.1 (2.0-2.2) times = 2100°C on flat ground. 11500 (1100-1200°C) x 2.1 = 2415°C air temperature sum (TDD) on flat ground.
This means: the zonal dry-steppe was only able, to grow in northeastern Siberia also on the flat ground, if the annual air temperature was 2100-2415°C (TDD).
The large herds of steppe-mammoths, steppe-horses, saigas, and Asiatic asses and camels do prove, that zonal steppe and forest-steppe were growing then in northern Siberia and Yukon/Alaska, also on the flat ground, and not only on a few steep, well-drained south-facing bluffs. What must have been then the mean air temperature of the warmest month, so that this zonal steppe was able to grow up there then also on the flat ground? For example, at the present arctic coast of Northeastern Siberia and on the now submerged continental shelf?
The beetles were only able to live, to reproduce up there, when the mean July air temperature was at least 10-12°C or an average 11°C. The south-facing bluff, where the azonal dry steppe is growing now, is 2.1 (2.0-2.2) times warmer than the flat ground.
11°C x 2.1 = 23.1°C
This means: Zonal steppe was able to grow in northeastern Siberia, at the present arctic-coast, while the warmest month of the year was at least 23.1°C. And only then, also the flat ground up there would be able to thaw in summer to a depth of 2.5-3 m, as it does now at the south-facing bluffs. There is no way around this.
During the Late Pleistocene, weevil beetles were also living on the dry terraces of the river-valleys. There the temperature at the surface was 15-18% less, than on the south-facing slopes. Thus, the mean July air temperature, 18,000-20,000 years ago, at the peak of the Last Ice Age, had to be then at least 12-13°C. Because only then it would have been up there warm enough, so that the beetles were able to reproduce. At 18-20 ka, the air temperature on the lower (northern) part of the Kolyma and Indigirka rivers and on Ayon Island was then about two times higher than now.
Many of the world’s leading Ice-Age experts have concluded: During the Late Pleistocene, the present arctic coast of N.E. Siberia had a mean air temperature of only 0-4°C. The south-facing slopes at the Indigirka headwaters have now a water-content of only 5-6%. And this azonal dry steppe covers now only 35-45% of the soil. The driest arctic tundra up there has at least 9-10% water. That is already semi-desert. On such a climate not even the bison could have lived, not to mention whole herds of elephants.
I do conclude here: The zonal dry steppe was only able to grow in Northeastern Siberia also on the flat ground, if the annual air temperature sum above 0°C was 2100-2415°C or an average 2257°C (TDD). – How large is now the temperature sum above 0°C on the zonal steppe in South Siberia’s steppe and North America’s prairie? How warm is there the northern part of this zonal grassland, and also further south? How large is there annual precipitation, so that this grassland will be able to grow? I have looked at a few places in southern Canada and southern Siberia:
A weevil feeding on a leaf. It has a long, trunk-like snout. That is why they also call it a snout-beetle. From: The Encyclopeda Americana, Vol 28 (1996:573).
In Climates- of-North-America (1974), edited by R.A. Bryson and F.K. Hare:
Lethbridge, Alberta, S.W. Canada, at 49°38’N, 112°48’W, elevation 280 m above sea level.
Annual precipitation 439 mm. Annual temperature 5.4°C. Mean July air temperature 18.9°C. The sum of the air temperature above 0°C is there 2279°C (TDD).
Calgary, Alberta, S.W. Canada, 51°06’N, 114°01’W. Elevation 329 m a.s.l. Annual temperature 3.6°C. Annual precipitation 444 mm. Mean July air temperature 16.7°C. The sum of the air temperature above 0°C is there 2282°C (TDD).
Regina,-Saskatchewan, central southern Canada, 50°26’N, 104°40’W. Elevation 174 m a.s.l.
Annual precipitation 394 mm. Annual temperature 2.2°C. Mean July air temperature 19.3°C. The annual sum of the air temperature above 0°C is there 2573°C (TDD).
From Paul E. Lydolph, Climates-of-the-Soviet-Union (1977):
Novosibirsk, Russia, southern Siberia, 55°02’N, 82°54’E. Elevation 162 m a.s.l.
Annual precipitation 425 mm. Annual temperature –0.2°C. Mean July air temperature18.7°C. The annual-sum of the air temperature above 0°C is there 2228°C (TDD).
Alma-Ata, Kazakhstan, southern Siberia, 43°14’N, 76°56’E. Elevation 848 m. Annual precipitation 581 mm. Annual temperature 7.3°C. Mean July air temperature 22.2°C. The annual temperature-sum above 0°C in this south Siberian dry-steppe is 3405°C (TDD).
The average of these four places at the northern part of the zonal steppe, grassland or prairie ( at Lethbridge, Calgary, Regina, and Novosibirsk) has an annual air temperature-sum above 0°C of 2345°C (TDD). – For the zonal steppe in northeastern Siberia, growing also on the flat ground, I have calculated 2100-2415°C. That is quite close. – Further south, at Alma Ata, it increases to 3405°C (TDD).
Annual precipitation at these four places averages 432 mm.
Average mean July air temperature at the northern part of the zonal steppe or prairie is 18.4°C.
This means: The warm zonal steppe was only able to grow in northeastern Siberia also on the flat ground, when it was just as warm up there, as it is now further south in the northern part of the steppe of South Siberia and at the northern part of the Great Plains of North America. This zonal steppe was only able to grow in the Far North, if:
· The air temperature-sum above 0°C was about 2405°C,
· Annual precipitation 432 mm.
· Mean July air temperature at least 18.4°C.
In an arctic climate this is not possible. This also clearly proves that the mammoth has not been adapted to an arctic climate. It would have starved, thirsted, and frozen up there to death. Any assertions to the contrary are only wishful thinking. They have nothing to do with serious scientific research. The mammoth’s assumed adaptation to an arctic climate is only a pious myth. It has nothing to do whatsoever with any serious scientific research.
How cold it has been during the coldest part of the Last Ice Age, the large ice-wedges in the permafrost clearly show us. These large ice wedge do show us: During the peak of the Last Ice Age northern Siberia and northern North America between 60° and 70°North have been in winter just as cold, as it is now in the coldest parts of the Northern Hemisphere: in northern Greenland and northern Ellesmere Island. So there must be something seriously wrong with the radiocarbon dates of the frozen Jarkov Mammoth and its companions.